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THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN   INTERNATIONAL   WORK   OF   REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,    DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHASLES  G.  HERBERMANN,  P11.D.,  LLD. 

EDWARD  A.  PACE,  PH.D.,  D.D.        CONDE  B.  FALLEN.  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN  J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED  BY   NUMEROUS  COLLABOKATOKS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  X 


Dew  lIMcA 
THE  UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOUNDATION,   INC. 


J 


THE  HEW  YORK 

PUBUC  LIBRARY 

ABTVR.X^OX  if  MO 

TtLDEH  FOUKOATtONB 
R         t933 


Nihil  ObsteU,  Feitmiary  1 ,  1911 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 


CBNSOB 


IrnpHnuduT 

*JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 


ARCHBISHOP  OF  NSW  TOBK 


•    •    • 


Copyright,  1911 
By  Robert  Appleton  Company 

Copyright,  191S 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

Hie  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
^  Encydpp^U  .and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  indud- 
;  \ .  in^  ;ihe  ri^tf,  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


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PNCeeWONK  AND  eiNDINQ   BY  J.    •.    LYON  CO  .  ALSANY.    N.   Y..    U.   8.   A. 


Contributors  to  the  Tenth  Volume 


AIKEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Provbssob  or 
Apolooxticb,  Cathouc  Universitt  or  Amer- 
ica, Washington:  Mendus;  MoDotheism;  Ndve, 
F^lix-Jean-Baptiste-Joseph. 

AlDASY,    ANTAL,    Ph.D.,    Abchivist   or   thb 

LiBBABT  OF  THE  NATIONAL  MuSEUM,  BUDAPEST: 

Matthias    Corviniis;    Munkdcs,    Dioceee    of; 
Neusohl,  Diocese  of;  Neutra,  Diocese  of. 

ALMOND,  JOSEPH  CUTHBERT,  O.S.B.,  Supb- 
RioB  OF  Park's  Hall,  Oxford  :  Mechitar;  Mech- 
itarists. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  Downside  Abbet, 
Bath,  England:  Monasteries,  Double. 

AMADO,  RAMON  RUIZ,  8.J.,  LL.D.,  Ph.L., 
College  or  St.  Ignatius,  Sarria,  Barcelona, 
Spain:  Minorca,  Diocese  of;  Mondoliedo,  Dio- 
cese of. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  M.A.  (Cantab.), 
PBorBssoR  or  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Edmttnd's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Messalians;  Mith- 
raism;  Nasonuins. 

AUCLAIR,  fiLIE  J.,  B.A..  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Univeb- 
BiTT  or  Laval,  Montbeal,  Canada:  Montreal, 
Archdiocese  of. 

AUGUSTINE,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C.,  Fbanoiscan 
Capuchin  Monastebt,  Dublin:  Mathew,  Theo- 
bald. 

AUSTIN,  SISTER  MARY  STANISLAUS,  St. 
Cathabine's  Convent  or  Mebct,  New  Yobx: 
Mercy,  Sisters  of. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Matter; 
Mivart,  Sir  George  Jackson. 

BACCHUS,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Oba- 
tobt,  Bibmingham,  England:  Mennas;  Mo- 
nasticism,  II.  Eastern  Monastidsm  Before 
Chalcedon. 

BARNES,  Mgb.  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A., 
(OxoN.  AND  Cantab.),  Cambbidoe,  England: 
Neophyte. 

BARRETT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  St.  Michael's 
Abbey,  Fabnbobough,  England:  Melrose, 
Abbey  of. 

BARRY,  WILLIAM,  S.T.D.,  Leamington,  Eng- 
land: Newman,  John  Henty. 

BAUMGARTEN,  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D.,  S.T.D., 
Domestic  Pbelate,  Rome:  Mirabilia  Urbis 
Ronue;  Monsignor. 

BEECHER,  PATRICK  A.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  PBorEssoB 
or  Pastobal  Theology  and  Sacbed  Elo- 
quence, Maynooth  College,  Dublin:  Mo- 
riarty,  David. 


BENIGNI,  UMBERTO,  Pbofbssob  or  Ecclesias- 
tical HisTOBY,  Pont.  Collsgio  Ubbano  di 
Pbopaganda,  Rome:  Massa  Carrara,  Diocese 
of;  Massa  Marittima,  Diocese  of;  Mazsara  del 
Vallo,  Diocese  of;  Melfi  and  Rapolla,  Diocese  of; 
Messina,  Archdiocese  of;  Mezzofanti,  Giuseppe; 
Milan,  Archdiocese  of;  Mileto,  Diocese  of;  Mint, . 
Papal;  Modena,  Archdiocese  and  University  of; 
Modigliana,  Diocese  of;  Molfetta,  Terlissi  and 
Giovinazzo,  Diocese  of;  Monaco,  Principality 
and  Diocese  of;  Mondovt,  Diocese  of;  Monopoli, 
Diocese  of;  Monreale,  Archdiocese  of;  Montal- 
cino.  Diocese  of;  Montalto,  Diocese  of;  Monte- 
feltro.  Diocese  of;  Montefiascone,  'Diocese  of; 
Montepulciano,  Diocese  of;  Monies  Pietatis; 
Moroni,  Gaetano;  Muro  Lucano,  Diocese  of; 
Naples;  Nardo,  Diocese  of;  Nami  and  Temi, 
United  Dioceses  of;  Nepi  and  Sutri. 

BERTRIN,  GEORGES,  Lrrr.D.,  Fellow  or  the 
Univebsity,  PBorEssoB  OF  Fbench  Liteba- 
TUBE,  Instttut  Cathouque,  Pabis:  Miracle 
Plays  and  Mysteries;  Molidre  (Jean-Baptiste 
Poquelin);  Montaigne,  Michael  Eyquen  de. 

BESSE,  J.  M.,  O.S.B.,  Dibbctob,  "Revue  Mabil- 
lon",  Chevetogne,  Belgium:  Mendes  de 
Silva,  Jofto;  Meroedarians;  Monasteries,  Suppres- 
sion of. 

BESTE,  KENELM  DIGBY,  S.J.,  St.  Beuno's  Col- 
LEGE,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Menevia,  Diocese  of. 

BEWERUNGE,  H.,  Pbofbssob  of  Chubch  Music, 
Maynooth  College,  Dublin:  Neum. 

« 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lectob  or  EccuBSLkSTi- 

CAL    EElBTOBY,    CoLLEGIO    SaN    BoNAVENTUBA, 

QuABACcm,  Flobbnce:  Matteo  of  Aquasparta; 
Myron,  Francis. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-MARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
DiBECTOB,  "Canoniste  Contempobain  ",  Pbo- 
rEssoB  or  Canon  Law,  Institut  Cathouque, 
Pabis:  Mensa,  Mensal  Revenue;  Metropolitan; 
Minor;  Minor  Orders;  Monseigneur. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Bellevue,  Luxembubg; 
Mitre;  Morse;  Mozzetta. 

BR£HIER,  L0UIS-REN£,  PBorsssoB  or  Ancient 
AND  Medieval  Histoby,  Univebsity  or  Cleb^ 
mont-Febband,  Pxty-de-DAme,  Fbance:  Mi- 
chaud,  Joseph-Francis;  Montfaucon,  Bernard  de. 

6R0CK,  HENRY  M.,  S.J.,  Obe  Place,  Hastings, 
England:  Mayer,  Christian;  Moigno,  Frangois. 

BROSNAHAN,  TIMOTHY,  S.J.,  PBorsssoB  oi 
Psychology  and  Ethics,  Woodstock  College, 
Mabyland:  Mazzella,  Camillo. 


J 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


BURKE,  EDMUND,  B.A,  Instbuctor  in  Latin, 

COLLBGK  OF  THE  CiTT  OP  NeW  YoRK:  MuBUIOB, 

MarkoB. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  8.T.D.,  F.R.  Hwr.  Soc.,  Vice- 
President,  St.  Edmttnd'b  Colubgb,  Ware, 
England:  Matthew,  Sir  Tobie;  Mile,  Crispin; 
Monsell,  William;  Montfort,  Simon  de;  Morton, 
John;  Mnah.  (alias  Ratcliffe),  John. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of  St.  Mi- 
chael's,  Farnborough,  England:  Matins. 

CAMPBELL,  THOMAS  J.,  S.J.,  Editor-in-Chief, 
"America",  New  York:  Mass^,  Enemond; 
Menard,  Ren^. 

CANGIANO,  VICTOR,  C.8.C.B.,  Mibsionart  Apos- 
tolic, Vice-Rector,  St.  Joachim's  Church, 
New  York:  Missionaries  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  Congregation  of. 

CASANOVA,  GERTRUDE,  O.S.B.,  Stanbrook 
Abbet,  Worcester,  England:  Mechtilde, 
Saint. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior 
OF  St.  Thomas's  Abbet,  Erdington,  Birming- 
ham, England:  Maximus  of  Constantinople, 
Saint;  Melchisedechians;  Monarchians;  Mo- 
nophysites  and  Monophysitism;  Monothelitism 
and  Monothelites;  Montanists;  Nestorius  and 
Nestorianism. 

CHARLES,  BROTHER,  Principal,  Cathedral 
School,  Natchez,  Mississippi  :  Natchez,  Diocese 
of. 

CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  J.C.D.,  J.Civ.D., 
S.T.L.,  sometime  Professor  of  Canon  Law 
AND  Moral  Theologt,  St.  Isidore's  College, 
Rome:  Mastrius,  Bartholomew;  Medina,  Juan 
de;  Medina,  Miguel  de;  Molloy  (O'Molloy), 
Francis;  Mullock,  John  T. 

CLUGNET,  JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE,  Lrrr.L., 
Paris:  Medaidus,  Saint. 

COGHLAN,  DANIEL,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Dog- 
matic Theologt,  Matnooth  College,  Dublin: 
Murray,  Patrick. 

CORDIER,  HENRI,  Professor  at  the  School  for 
Oriental  Living  Languages,  Paris:  Mongolia. 

CORLEY,  JOHN  LOUIS,  LL.B.,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Missouri,  State  of. 

CRAM,  RALPH  ADAMS,  F.R.G.S.,  F.  Am.  Inbt. 
Architects,  President,  Boston  Socibtt  of 
Architectb,  Boston:  Narthex;  Nave. 

CRIVELLI,  CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
General  History,  Instituto  CiENiiFioo, 
Cnr  OF  Mexico:  Mendfburu,  Manuel  de;  Men- 
dieta,  Jer6nimo;  Mexico;  Molina,  Alonso  de; 
Morelos,  Jos6  Maria;  Motolinfa,  Toribio  de 
Benavente. 

CUSICK,  PETER  F.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Chemistrt 
AND  Gbologt,  Boston  College,  Boston, 
Massachusetts:  Molloy,  Gerald. 


CUTHBERT,  FATHER.  O.S.F.C.,  Crawlet, 
Sussex,  England:  Massaia,  Guglielmo. 

lyALTON,  E.  A.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Athbnrt, 
Ireland:  Moore,  Arthur;  Moylan,  Francis; 
Murray,  Daniel. 

DEGERT,  ANTOINE,  Lrrr.D.,  Editor,  "La  Revue 

DE  LA  GaSCOIGNE",  PrOFESSOR  OF  LaTIN  LIT- 
ERATURE, Instttut  Cathouque,  Toulouse: 
Massillon,  Jean-Baptiste;  Mathieu,  FrangoLs- 
D6sir6;  Montesquieu,  Charles-Louis  de  Secondat. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Mercy, 
Corporal  and  Spiritual  Works  of;  Negligence. 

DEVINE,  ARTHUR,  C.P.,  St.  Paul's  Retreat, 
Mount  Argus,  Dublin:  Miracles,  Gift  of. 

DE  WULF,  MAURICE,  Member  of  the  Belgian 
Academy,  Professor  of  Logic  and  .Esthet- 
ics, Univbrsitt  of  Louvain:  Neo-Scholasti- 
cism. 

DOHERTY,  CHARLES  J.,  K.C.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 
Montreal,  Canada:  Masses,  Bequests  fo*- 
(Canada). 

DOLAN,  JOHN  GILBERT,  O.S.B.,  The  Priort, 
LnTLB  Malvern,  England:  Muri  (Muri- 
Gries). 

DOMANIG,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Honorary  Imperial 
Councillor,  Chief  Director  of  the  Imperial 
Collection  of  Coins,  Klobterneuburo,  Aus- 
tria: Molo,  Gasparo. 

DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  O.F.M.,  Franciscan 
Convent,  WAsmNoroN:  Michael  of  Cesena. 

DOUCERfi,  VICTOR,  S.M.,  Titular  Bishop  of 
Ternutt,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  New  Heb- 
RiDBs:  New  Hebrides,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  Rochelle, 
New  York:  Media  and  Medes;  Moses  Bar 
Cephas;  Nabo  (Nebo);  Nathan;  Nathanael. 
Nathinites;  Nasarene;  Nasarite;  Nebo,  Mount, 
Nemrod. 

DRISCOLL,  JOHN  T.,  M.A.,  S.T.L.,  Fonda,  New 
York:  Miracle;  Naturism. 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.  J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew 
AND  Sacred  Scripture,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Massorah,  Mathathias;  Menochio, 
Giovanni  Stefano. 

DUBRAY,  CHARLES  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  Marist  College, 
Washington:  Mersenne,  Marin;  Naturalism: 
Nature;  Necromancy. 

DUFFY,  PATRICK  EDWARD,  S.T.L.,  Mullin- 
GAR,  Ireland:  Meath,  Diocese  of. 

DUHEM,  PIERRE,  Professor  of  Theoretical 
Physics,  University  of  Bordeaux:  Nemore, 
Jordanus  de. 

DUTTON,  JOSEPH  M.  F.,  Kalawao,  Molokax, 
Hawau:  Molokai. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


EATON,  THOMAS  J.,  M.A.,  Mobile,  Alabama: 
MobOe,  Diocese  of. 

ELGUERO,  FRANCISCO,  Morelia,  Mexico: 
Michoacan,  Archdiocese  of. 

ELLIOT,  WALTER,  C.S.P.,  New  York:  Mission- 
ary Society  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M.,  Watbon- 
viLLE,  California:  Membre,  Zenobius;  Mon- 
terey and  Los  Angeles,  Diocese  of. 

ENGELKEMPER,  WILHELM,  8.T.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis, 
Universitt  of  Mt^NSTER:  MtUttter,  University 
of. 

ESPINOSA,  AURELIO  MACEDONIO,  M.A., 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Spanish,  Lsland  Stan- 
ford Uniyersitt,  California:  Nevada. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Church  Histort  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
Universitt,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Medicine 
and  Canon  Law;  Midwives;  Monastery,  Ca- 
nonical Erection  of  a. 

FISHER,  J.  H.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Mart- 
land:  M6daille,  Jean-Paul. 

FLAHERTY,  MATTHEW  J.,  M.A.  (Harvard), 
Concord,  Massachusetts:  Moore,  Thomas. 

FORBES-LEITH,  WILLIAM,  S.J.,  Boscombe, 
Bournemouth,  England:  Melrose,  Chronicle 
of. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor  of  Spanish  and  French,  Harvard  Uni- 
versitt, Cambridge,  Massachusetts:  Mena, 
Juande;  Menzini,  Benedetto;  Metastasio,  Pietro; 
Morales,  Ambrosio. 

FORGET,  JACQUES,  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Thsologt  and  the  Striac  and  Arabic  Lan- 
guages, Universitt  of  Louvain:  Melchers, 
Paul. 

PORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Letch- 
worth,  Hertfordshire,  England:  Mass,  Nup- 
tial; Maurice,  Roman  Emperor;  Melchites; 
Men^on;  Metaphrastes,  Symeon;  Methodius  I; 
Metrophanes  of  Smyrna;  Michael  Cffirularius; 
Monasticism,  III.  Eastern  Monasticism;  Necta- 
rius.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  S.S.,  M.A., 
Professor  of  Histort,  CoLiisGE  de  Montreal, 
Montreal,  Canada:  Montboissier,  Peter  of. 

POX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Associate  Professor 
OF  Phtsics,  College  of  the  Citt  of  New 
York:  Matteucci,  Carlo;  Montgolfier,  Joseph- 
Michel. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
College  of  the  Cmr  of  New  York:  Medrano, 
Francisco;  Mel^ndes  Vald^,  Juan;  Mendafia  de 
Neyra,  Alvaro  de;  Mendoza,  Diego  Hurtado  de; 
Montemayor,  Jorge  de;  Moratfn,  Leandro  Fer- 
nandez de;  Moreto  y  Cabafia,  Agustln;  Nava- 
nete,  Martin  Femindes  de. 


GASQUET,  FRANCIS  AIDAN,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D., 
Abbot  President  of  the  English  Benbdictini 
Congregation,  London:  Monasteries,  Sup- 
pression of,  in  England  under  Henry  VIII. 

GANCEVIC,  ANTHONY  LAWRENCE,  O.F.M., 
Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Zaostrog,  Dalmatia:  Meduli6, 
Andreas;  Miridite,  Abbey  of. 

GARDNER,  EDMUND  GARRETT,  M.A.  (Cam- 
bridge), Barlow  Lecturer  on  Dante,  Uni- 
versitt College,  London:  Medici,  House  of; 
Melt,  Giovanni;  Nardi,  Jaoopo. 

GARESCHfi,  EDWARD  FRANCIS,  S.J.,  St. 
Louis  Universitt,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Nacchiante,  Giacomo;  Nepveu,  Francis;  Neu- 
mayr,  Franz. 

GEDDES,  LEONARD  WILLIAM,  8.  J.,  St.  Bbuno's 
College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Messias. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  S.J.,  F.L.S.,  London:  Monito 
Secreta. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  C.R.P.,  Abbot 
Titular  of  Barlings,  Corpus  ChribtiPriort, 
Manchester,  England:  Newhouse,  Abbey  of. 

GEETMANN,  GERARD,  S.J.,  Teacher  of  Clas- 
sical Languages  and  ^Esthetics,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Michelozzo 
di  Bartolommeo;  Miller,  Ferdinand  von;  Mohr, 
Christian;  Mtdler,  Karl;  Muac,  Ecclesiastical; 
Neumann,  Johann  Balthasar. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  SEsaNART, 
DuNWOODDB,  New  York:  Maimoury,  Auguste- 
Fran^ois;  Memeptah  I;  Midrashim;  Moab, 
Moabites;  Moloch. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  Massys,  Quentin;  Meis- 
sonier,  Ernest;  Melozzo  da  Forll;  Memling, 
Hans;  Mignard,  Pierre;  Millet,  Jean-Francis; 
Montagna,  Bartolomeo;  Mflntz,  Eugdne;  Mu- 
rillo,  Bartolom6  Esteban. 

GLASS,  JOSEPH  S.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  President,  St. 
Vincent's  College,  Los  Angeles,  California: 
Medal,  Miraculous. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  EDrroR,  "Revue 
DES  Dextx  Mondes'',  Paris:  Mazarin,  Jules; 
Meaux,  Diocese  of;  Medici,  Maria  de';  Mende, 
Diocese  of;  Molai  (Molay),  Jacques  de;  Mon- 
strelet,  Enguerrand  de;  Montalembert,  Charles- 
Forbes-Ren6  de;  Montauban,  Diocese  of;  Mont- 
morency, Anne,  First  Duke  of;  Montor,  Alexis- 
Francis  Artaud  de;  Montpellier,  Diocese  and 
University  of;  Moulins,  Diocese  of;  Namur,  Dio- 
cese of;  Nancy,  Diocese  of;  Nantes,  Diocese  of; 
Napoleon  I;  Napoleon  III;  Nevers,  Diocese  of. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD,  W.  M.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mus.D., 
Rosemount,  Enniscortht,  Ireland:  Messing- 
ham,  Thomas;  Monteverde,  Claudio;  Motet; 
Mura,  Saint. 

GREY,  J.  C,  New  York:  Medellin,  Archdiocese  of; 
Monte  Vergine. 


vu 


/5 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


GUTBERLET,  OONSTANTINE,  8.T.D.,  Protho- 
NOTABT  ApoerouCi  Profbsbor  of  Thxologt, 
ApoLOGvncB  AND  PmLoeoPHT,  Sbminart  of 
FuLDA,  Gbbmant:  Materifllkm. 

GUTHRIE,  W.  B.,  Assistant  Pbofbssob,  Dbfabt- 

MBNT  OF  PounCAL  ECONOMT,  COLLBOB  OF  THB 

Cttt  OF  Nbw  York:  Migration. 

HAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  Vatican  Obskrvatort,  Rom: 
Mailer  (Regiomontanus)i  Johann. 

HAMILTON,  GEORGE  E.,  Washington.'  Morris, 
Martin  Ferdinand. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  York:  Mon- 
tafi^,  Juan  Martinez. 

HARRINGTON,  THOMAS  P.,  M.D.,  Boston, 
Massachitsrtts:  Massachusetts. 

HARRIS,  WILLIAM  RICHARD,  S.T.D.,  LL.D., 
EnrroR  of  "Intbriiountain  Caihouc'',  Salt 
Lakb  Cmr,  Utah:  Mormons. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Librarian  of  thr 
RoTAL  TiiBRART,  Munich:  NavaiTe. 

HASSETT,  Mgr.  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Harris- 
burg,  Pennsylvania:  Matricula;  Monogram  of 
dirist. 

HEALY,  JOHN,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Arch- 
bishop OF  TuAM,  Senator  of  the  National 
Universitt  of  Ireland:  Mayo,  School  of. 

HENRY,  HUGH  T.,  Lrrr.D.,  Rector  of  Roman 
Cathouc  High  School  for  Bots,  Professor 
OF  English  Ltterature  and  of  Gregorian 
Chant,  St.  Charles  Seminart,  Overbrook, 
Pennsylvania:  Mass,  Music  of  the;  Miserere. 

HOEBER,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Edpfor,  "  VoLxszErruNG" 
AND  "Akademthche  Mon  atsbiJLttbr",  Cologne  : 
Maxentius,  Marcus  AureKus;  Maximianus,  Mai^ 
cus  Aurelius  Valerius;  Maximinus,  Caius  Vale- 
rius Daja;  Maximinus  Thrax,  Ouus  Julius  Verus; 
Nero. 

HOGAN,  JOHN  F.  CANON,  Professor  of  Mod- 
ern Languages,  Maynooth  College,  Dub- 
lin: Maynooth  College. 

HOLWECK,  FREDERIC  G.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Maternity  of  the  Blessed  Viigin  Mary,  Feast  of 
the;  Michael  the  Archangel;  Months,  Special 
Devotions  for;  Most  Pure  Heart  of  Mary,  Feast 
of  the;  Mount  Carmel,  Feast  of  Our  Lady  of; 
Name  of  Mary,  Feast  of  the  Holy;  Nativity  of 
the  Blessed  Viigin  Mary,  Feast  of  the. 

HOWLEY,  MICHAEL  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  Arch- 
bishop OF  St.  John's,  Newfoundland:  New- 
foundland. 

HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.S.B.,  Down- 
bide  Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Mellitus,  Saint; 
Monasticism,  IV.  Western  Monasticism;  Monte 
Cassino,  Abbey  of;  MontreuU,  Charterhouse  of 
Notre-Dame-des-Pt^;  Montreuil  Abbey ;  Mont- 
8t-M]oheL 


HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  SJ.,  Editor,  "The  Exam- 
iner", Bombay,  India:    Mysore,  Diocese  of; 
.  Nagpur,  Diocese  of. 

HUNT,  LEIGH,  Professor  of  Art,  College  of 
THE  Cmr  OF  New  York:  Morg^en,  Raffaello; 
Nanteuil,  Robert;   Navarrete,  Juan  Ferniindei. 

INGOLD,  A.  M.  P.,  Director,  "Revue  d'Aisace", 
CoLMAR,  Germany:  Morin,  Jean. 

JACQUIER,  EUGENE,  S.T.D.,  PBoraasoR  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  University  of  Lyons: 
Matthew,  Saint;  Matthew,  Gospel  of  Saint; 
Matthias,  Saint. 

JENNER,  HENRY,  F.S.A.,  Late  of  the  British 
Museum,  London:  Moiarabic  Rite. 

JOHNSTON,  FRANK,  Ex-Attorney  General  of 
Mississippi,  Jackson,  Mississippi:  Mississippi. 

JONES,  ARTHUR  EDWARD,  S  J.,  Correspond- 
ing Member  of  the  Minnesota,  Ontario,  and 
Chicago  Historical  Societies;  Hon.  Member 
of  THE  Missouri  HisToi&CAL  Society;  Member 
OF  THE  International  Congress  of  American- 
ists; Archivist  of  St.  Mary's  College, 
Montreal:  Millet,  Piene. 

JOYCE,  GEORGE  HAYWARD,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
St.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales: 
Morality;  Mystical  Body  of  the  Church. 

KEARNS,  WILLIAM  J.,  LL.B.,  Newark,  New 
Jersey:  New  Jersey. 

EEILY,  JARVIS,  M.A.,  Grantwood,  New  Jersey: 
Miles,  George  Henry;  Moylan,  Stephen. 

KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  York r  Mercy,  Broth- 
ers of  Our  Lady  of. 

KELLY,  LEO  A.,  Ph.B.,  Rochester,  New  York: 
Mouchy,  Antoine  de. 

KEMPENEER,  ALBERT  CANON,  Ph.D.,  Lrrr.D., 
Professor  of  Church  History  at  the  Semi- 
nary, Inspector  of  Episcopal  Colleges, 
Mechlin,  Belgium:  Mechlin,  Archdiocese  of. 

KENDAL,  JAMES,  S.J.,  Bulawayo,  Rhodesia, 
South  Africa:  Monomotapa. 

KENNEDY,  DANIEL  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.M.,  Professor 
OF  Sacramental  Theology, 'Cathouc  Univer- 
sity of  America,  Washington:  Massouli^, 
Antoine;  Maszolini,  Sylvester;  Medina,  Barthol- 
omew. 

KENNEDY,  THOMAS,  B.A.  (National  Univer- 
sity OF  Ireland),  London:  Matthew  of  Cracow; 
Mayhew,  Edward;  Mihier,  Robert,  Venerable; 
Missions,*^  Catholic;  Mozambique;  Nagasaki, 
Diocese  of;  New  Caledonia,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of;  New  Guinea. 


C50NTRIBUT0RS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


EIBSCH,  JOHANN  PETER,  S.T.D.,  Dokestic 
Prblatb,  Professor  of  Patroloot  and  Chris- 
tian Archjboloot,  Uniyerbitt  of  Fribourq: 
Matilda  of  Canossa;  Methodius  of  Olympus, 
Saint;  Micrologus;  Migne,  Jacques-Paul;  Mil- 
lennium and  Millenarianism;  Miltiades,  Saint, 
Pope;  Mombritius,  Bonino;  Monarchia  Sicula; 
Muratori,  Luigi  Antonio;  Muratoiian  Canon; 
Nabor  and  Felix,  Saints;  Nasarius,  Saint;  Naza- 
rius  and  Celsus,  Saints  and  Martyrs;  Nasarius 
and  Companions,  Saints;  Neckam,  Alexander  of; 
Neher,  Stephan  Jakob;  Nereus  and  Achilleus, 
Domitalla  and  Pancratius,  Saints  and  Martyrs; 
Neugart,  Trudpert. 

KLEINSCHMIDT,  BEDA,  O.F.M..  Rector,  St. 
Ludwio'b  College,  Harrbveld,  Holland: 
Metal-Work  in  the  Service  of  the  Church. 

KURTH,  GODEFROID,  Director,  Belgian  Hi&. 
TORiCAL  Institute,  Robie:  Netherlands,  The. 

LACY,  RICELARD,  Bishop  of  Middlebrrougb, 
England:  Middlesbrough,  Diocese  of. 

LAGARDE,  ERNEST,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Engush  and  Modern  Languages,  Mount 
St.  Mart's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland: 
Mount  St.  Mary's  College. 

LANGOUET,  A.,  O.M.I.,  Kimbbrlbt,  South 
Africa:  Natal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen: 
Middendorp,  Jakob;  Miletus  (MtUler),  "^tus; 
Moufang,  Frans  Chiistoph  Ignaz;  Movers,  Frans 
Karl;  MQller,  Adam  Heinrich. 

LECLERCQ,  HENRI,  O.S.B.,  London:  Maundy 
Thursday;  Meletius  of  Antioch;  Meletius  of  Ly- 
oopolis. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  UNivERsnT  of 
France,  Professor,  Catholic  Institute, 
Paris:  Minuoius  Felix;  Mirandola,  Giovanni 
Francesco  Pico  deUa;  Mirandola,  Giovanni  Pico 
della;  Muret,  Maro-Antoine. 

LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Professor 
OF  English  and  Literaturb,  Cathouc  Uni- 
VBRSiTT  OF  America:  Moore  (Moor),  Michael. 

LE  ROY,  ALEXANDER  A.,  C.S.Sp.,  Bishop  of 
Alinda,  Superior  General  of  the  Congrega- 
tion OF  THE  Holt  Ghost,  Paris:  Mayotte, 
NoaBi-B6,  and  Comoro,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of; 
Morocco,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 

LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc.,  Ph.D., 
Editor-in-Chief,  "La  Nouvelle  France", 
QuEREc:  Meilleur,  Jean-Baptiste;  Mercier, 
Louis-Honor6;  Montcalm-Goaon,  Louis-Joseph; 
Montmagny,  Charles  Huault  de. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  .Freibxtrg,  Germany:  Mecklen- 
burg; Mehrerau;  Meissen;  Mets;  Minden,  Dio- 
cese of;  Minsk,  Diocese  of;  Misocoo  and  Calanca, 
Prafecture  Apostolic  of;  Mohileff,  Archdiocese  of; 
Montenegro;  Moravia;  Munich-Freidiig,  Arch- 
dioeese  of;  MQnster,  Diocese  of. 


LOFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D,  Librarian,  Uni- 
VERSiTT  OF  Breslau:  Melanchthon,  Philipp; 
Mone,  Frans. 

LORIGAN,  JAMES  T.,  Knozville,  Tennessee: 
Nashville,  Diocese  of. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Maurus,  Sylvester. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  MeUto, 
Saint;  Melo,  Diocese  of;  M^ndes  and  Guala- 
quisa.  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  Meredith,  Edward; 
M6rida,  Diocese  of;  Metcalf,  Edward;  Ming, 
John;  Montevideo,  Archdiocese  of;  Morris,  John 
Brande;  Motu  Proprio;  Mozzi,  Luigi;  Neville, 
Edmund. 

McGAHAN,  FLORENCE  RUDGE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio:  Mercy,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Borromeo; 
Michael,  MiUtary  Orders  of  Saint;  Michelis,  Ed- 
ward; Mount  Calvaiy,  Congregation  of;  Name  of 
Jesus,  Religious  Communities  of. 

McHUGH,  JOHN  A.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector  of  Phi- 
losophy, Dominican  House  of  Studies,  Wash- 
ington: Mystery. 

McNEAL,  J.  PRESTON,  B.A.,  LL.B.,  BAi;nMORE: 
Neale,  Leonard. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York:  Massa  Can- 
dida; Meignan,  Guillaume-Ren6. 

MADDEN,  MARIE  REGINA,  Brookltn,  New 
York:  Names  of  Jesus  and  Maiy,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy. 

MAERE,  R.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Christian 
Archaologt,  Universitt  of  Louvain:  Mon- 
tault,  Xavier  Barbier  de;  Museums,  Christian. 

MAES,  CAMILLUS  P.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Coving- 
ton, Kentucky:  Moye,  John  Martin,  Venerable; 
Nerinckx,  Charles. 

MAH£,  CELESTIN,  Monroe,  Louisiana:  Natchi- 
toches, Diocese  of. 

MAHER,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Lrrr.D.,  M.A.  (Lon- 
don), Director  of  Studies  and  Professor  of 
Pedagogics,  Stonthurst  College,  Black- 
RX7RN,  England:  Metempsychosis;  Mind. 

MARIQUE,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York: 
Mercad^,  Eustache;  Meun,  Jean  Clopinel  de; 
Michel,  Jean;  Montyon,  Antoin&Jean-Baptiste- 
Robert  Auget,  Baron  de;  Mor6ri,  Loms. 

MAXWELL-SCOTT,  Hon.  Mrs.,  London:  Max- 
well, William;  Maxwell,  Winifred. 

MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York:  Meagher, 
Thomas  Francis;  Monroe,  James;  Mulhall, 
Michael  George ;  Mulholland,  St.  Clair  Augustine; 
Mullanphy,  John;  Newark,  Diocese  of. 

MEISTERMANN,  BARNABAS,  O.S.F.,  Ijdotor, 
Convent  of  S.  Salvator,  Jbrubauui:  Nairn; 
Nasareth. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


MENARD,  SISTER  MARIE,  Nasabbth,  Ejbn- 
tuckt:  Nazareth,  Sistera  of  Charity  of. 

MERSHMAN,   FRANCIS,   O.S.B.,   S.T.D.,   Pbo- 

FBBSOB  OF  MOBAL  ThBOLOOT,  CaNON  LaW,  AND 

LrruROT,  St.  John's  Collbos,  Collbqbyillb, 
Minnbbota:  Massuet,  Ren6;  Maurice,  Saint; 
Maurus,  Saint;  Meinwerk,  Blessed;  M6nard, 
Nicolas-Hugues;  Menas,  Saint;  Nausea,  Fred- 
eric. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Professor  of  General  His- 
tory, Uniyersitt  of  Louvain:  Militaiy  Or- 
ders, The;  Montesa,  Military  Order  of. 

MOLLOY,  JOSEPH  VINCENT,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  New 
Haven,  Connecticut:  Mathusala. 

MONTES  DE  OCA  Y  OBREGON,  JOSfi  M.  I., 
S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  San  Luis  Porosf, 
Administrator  Apostolic  of  Tamauufas, 
Domestic  Prelate  to  His  Holiness  and 
Assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne,  Knight 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Holt  Sepulchre,  Knight 
OF  Isabella  the  Cathouc,  K.  C.  of  Charles 
THE  Third,  Member  of  the  Madrid  Academy 
OF  Languages  and  History,  San  Luis  Porosf, 
Mexico:  Mexico,  Archdiocese  of. 

MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washing- 
ton: Mataco  Indians;  Maya  Indians;  Mayo  In- 
dians; Mayoruna  Indians;  Mazatec  Indians; 
Mbaya  Indians;  Mengarini,  Gregorio;  Menom- 
inee Indians;  Miami  Indians;  Mission  In- 
dians (of  California) ;  Missions,  Catholic  Indian, 
of  the  United  States;  Mixe  Indians;  Mixteca 
Indians;  Mooovf  Indians;  Montagnais  Indians 
(Quebec);  Moxos  Indians;  Mosetena  Indians. 

MOORE,  THOMAS  V.,  C.S.P.,  St.  Thomas's  Col- 
lege, Washington:  Memory. 

MORICE,  A.  G.,  O.M.I.,  Editor  of  "Lb  Patriots 
DE  l'Ouest",  Duck  Lake,  Saskatchewan, 
Canada:  Mazenod,  Charles  Joseph  Eugtoe  de; 
Micmacs;  Missions,  Catholic  Indian  (Canada); 
Montagnais  Indians  (Chippewayans);  Nahanes. 

MUNNYNCK,  MARK  P.  DE,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Philosophy,  University  of  Fribouro: 
Mechanism. 

NOLAN,  RICHARD  S.,  B.A.  (Trinity  College, 
Dublin),  London:  Masses,  Bequests  for  (Eng- 
land). 

NYS,  DfiSIRfi,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  President,  SAmi- 
NAiRE  L£on  XIII,  University  of  Louvain: 
Minkelers,  Jean-Pierre. 

OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M,,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  of 
Gethsemani  Abbey,  Kentucky:  Melleray; 
Mellifont,  Abbey  of;  Molesme,  Notre-Dame  de; 
Montmirail,  John  de;  Morimond,  Abbey  of; 
New  Abbey;  Newbattle. 

O'CONNOR.  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS,  M.A.,  LL.B., 
Manchester,  New  Hampshibb:  New  Hamp- 
shire. 


OLIGER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Church 
History,  College  S.  Antonio,  Rome:  Mendi- 
cant Friars;  Minimi  (Minims). 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  College, 
College ville,  Minnesota:  Matilda,  Saint; 
Maximilian  (Martyrs);  Maximinus,  Saint; 
Maximus  of  Turin,  Saint;  Mayor,  John; 
Majrr,  Beda;  Mechtild  of  Magdeburg;  M^e, 
Antoine-Joseph;  Mendoisa,  Francisco  Sarmi- 
ento  de;  Mendoza,  Pedro  Gonzales  de;  Mezger, 
Francis,  Joseph,  and  Paul;  Michael  de  Sanctis, 
Saint;  Milic,  Jan;  Mirseus  (Le  Mire),  Aubert; 
Mittarelli,  Nicola  Giacomo;  Molina,  Antonio 
de;  Molitor,  Wilhelm;  Moschus,  Johannes; 
Mundwiler,  Fintan;  Muzzarelli,  Alfonso. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  PrrrsBURGH,  Pennsylvania: 
Mohr,  Joseph;  Mozart,  Johann  Chrysostomus 
Wolfgang  Amadeus;  Musical  Ixistruments  in 
Church  Services. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  Early  Christian  Lit- 
erature, AND  Biblical  Archjbology,  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York: 
Mecca;  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism; 
Moses  of  Chorene. 

PACIFIQUE,  FATHER,  O.M.Cap.,  Micmac  Mis- 
SIGN,  Rbstigouchb,  Canada:  MembertoD  In- 
dians. 

PfiREZ  GOYENA,  ANTONIO,  S.J.,  Editor. 
"Rax6n  y  Fe",  Madrid:  Molinos,  Miguel  de. 

P£TRIDI:S,  SOPHRONE,  A.A.,  professor,  Greek 
Catholic  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui,  Constan- 
tinople: Metellopolis;  Miletopolis;  Mocissus; 
Modra;  Musti;  Myndus;  NacoUa;  Nazianzus. 

PHELAN,  PATRICK,  Vicar  General  and  Dean 
OF  the  Archdiocese  of  Melbourne,  Aus- 
tralia: Melbourne,  Archdiocese  of. 

PHILLIPS,  EDWARD  C,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:  Neil,  Antonio. 

POHLE,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Profes- 
sor OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  University  of 
Brbslau:  Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the;  Merit;  Molina, 
Luisde;  Molinism. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London: 
Molyneux,  Sir  Caryll;  More,  Henry;  Morris, 
John. 

POPE,  HUGH,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  S.S.D.,  Professor  of 
New  Testament  Exegesis,  Collegio  Ange- 
Lico,  RoBiE:  Monica,  Saint. 

POULAIN,  AUGUSTIN,  S.J.,  Paris:  Mohammedan 
Confratemities. 

RAINER,  Mgr.  JOSEPH,  V.G.,  P.A.,  Rector,  St. 
Francis  Provincial  Seminary,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Hebrew,  St.  Francib. 
Wisoonsin:  MilwaukeOi  Archdiocese  of. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


RANDOLPH,    BARTHOLOMEW,    CM.,    MA.,  SHIPMAN,   ANDREW   J.,   M.A.,   LL.M.,    Niw 

TsACHEB  OF  Phiumopht  AND  Chubch  Hibtort,  Yobk:  Moscow. 

St.  John's  Ck)LLBQB,  Brooklyn,  Nrw  York:  sILLARD,    PETER    A.,    Nbw    York:    Median, 

Misfflon,  Congregation  of  Priests  of  the.  Charles  Patrick. 

REILLY,  THOMAS  i  K.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.>  8.S.L.,  Pro-  SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  Sr.  Bbuno's  Collbgr,  St.  Asaph, 

FsasoR    of    Sacrbd    Scripture,    Doionican  Wales:  Mental  Reservation. 

HouM  OF  ^iBS,  WASHmoTON:  Medices  (de  SLOANE.    CHARLES   WILLUM,    N«w   Yoia: 

Medicis),     Hieronymus;    Mosaic    Legislation;  m  rt 


Moses. 


SMITH,  SYDNEY  F.,  S.J.,  London:  Mortification. 


REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct- 
Professor  of  Germanic  Philology,  Colum-    SMITH,  WALTER  GEORGE,  M.A.,  LL.B.   (U. 


BiA  UNiYBRsnT,  Nbw  York:  Miracle  Plays  and 
Mysteries;  MOnch-Bellinghausen,  Baron  Eligius 
Frans  Joseph  von. 

REZEK,  ANTOINE  IVAN,  Houghton,  Michigan: 
Mrak,  Ignatius. 

ROMPEL,  JOSEF  HEINRICH,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Stella 
Matutina  College,  Feldkirch,  Austria: 
Motina,  Juan  Ignacio;  Mutis,  Jos6  Celestino. 


OF  P.),  Philadelphia,  Pennstlyania:  Masses, 
Devises  and  Bequests  for  (United  States). 

SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  FRANCIS,  S.M.,  8.T.D.,  San 
Francisco,  California:  Mdrode,  Fr6d6rio- 
Fran^ois-Xavier  Ghishun  de. 

SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Assistant  EnrroR, 
"Etudes",  Paris:  Matteo  da  Siena;  Messina, 
Antonello  da;  Morales,  Luis  de;  Moroni,  Gio- 
vanni Battista. 


nesota:  Monopoly,  Moral  Aspects  of. 

SAINT  BEATRICE,  SISTER,  Sisters  of  the  Mis- 
ERicoRDE,  Montreal:  Misericorde,  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Sisters  of. 

BALAVILLE,  S£v£RIEN,  A.A.,  Professor  of 
Leturgt,  Greek  Cathouc  Sbiunart  of  Kadi- 
Keui,  Constantinople:  Memphis;  Methymna; 
Miletus;  Mitylene;  Mylasa;  Myra. 

SAUVAGE,  G.M.,  C.S.C.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Profbb- 


FEssoR,  Sacred  Scripture,  Hebrew,  and 
Liturgy,  Kenrick  Seminart,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Nabuchodonosor;  Nahum;  Names,  He- 
brew; Nephtali. 

STAGE,  FRANCIS  A.,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan: 
Michigan. 

SULLIVAN,  WILLIAM  CLEARY,  LL.B.,  Secre- 
tary, Cathouc  Young  Men's  National 
Union,  Washington:  National  Union,  Catholic 


Young  Men's. 
80B  OF  Dogmatic  TmoLooT,  Holt  Cross  Coi.    SUTTON,  JOHN  P.,  Linooln.  Nbbbaska:  Ne- 
I4B6B,  Washington:  Mysticism;  Necessity.  braska 

SCANNELI^  THOMMB.  CANON,  8T.D.,  Edi-    tALLON,  WILLIAM  THOMAS,  S.J.,  Woowm>OK 

CoLUBGE,  Maryland:  Melia,  Pius. 

TARNOWSKI,  COUNT  STANISLAUS,  Presidbnt, 
Imperial  Academy  op  Scdencbs,  Propessor, 
Polish  Lftbrature,  University  op  Krakow: 
Mickiewicz,  Adam. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London:  Medals, 
Devotional;  Menologium;  Minister;  Missal; 
Monk;  Morone,  Giovanni;  Nails,  Holy;  Names, 
Christian;  Natal  Day;  Necrologies. 

TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Propbssor  op 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt. 
St.  Mart's  College,  Emmitbburo,  Maryland: 
Melohisedech;  Mesa. 

TOKE,  LESLIE  ALEXANDER  ST.  LAWRENCE, 
BA.,  Stratton-on-Fosse,  Bath,  England: 
Maurists,  The;  Melk,  Abbey  and  Congregation 


TOR,    "Catholic    Dictionary",    Weybridgb, 
England:  Maury,  Jean-Siffrein. 

8CHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Sfella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Morel,  Gall;  Morell,  Juli- 
ana; Mumer,  Thomas. 

SCHLAGER,  HEINRICH  PATRICIUS,  O.F.M., 
St.  Ludwig's  College,  Dalheim,  Germany: 
Matthias  of  Neuburg;  Mechtel,  Johann;  M^ 
nazd,  L6on;  Mennillod,  Gaspard;  Miltis,  Kail 
Ton;  Mohler,  Johann  Adam;  Moncada,  Fran- 
daco  de;  Moy  de  Sons,  Karl  Ernst;  Muchar, 
Albert  Anton  von. 

8CHLITZ,  CHARLES,  S.J.,  Bonn,  Germany: 
Melania,  Saint  (the  Younger). 

8CHR0EDER,  JOSEPH,  O.P.,  Dominican  House 
OP  Studies,  Washington:  Mensing,  John;  Mis- 
sions, Catholic  Parochial;  Moneta;   Monsabr^, 


of. 
Jacques-Mane-Louis;  Montesino,  Antonio;  Mon-    TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Propessor  op 

Logic  and  the  History  op  Philosophy,  Catho- 
lic  University   op   America,    Washington: 


tesino,  Luis  de;  Morales,  Juan  Bautista;  Navar- 
rete,  Domingo  Fem^dez;  Nazarius,  John  Paul. 

8ENFELDER,  LEOPOLD,  M.D.,  Teacher  op  the 
History  op  Medicine,  Untverstty  op  Vienna: 
Medicine,  History  of. 


Megarians;  Melissus  of  Samos;  Metaphysics; 
Michael  Scotus;  Monad;  Monism;  Neo-Plato- 
nism;  Neo-Pythagorean  Philosophy. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


VAILHfi,  SIMfiON,  A.  A.,  Mbmbeb  op  thb  Russian 

AbCHJBOLOOICAL      InSTTTUTB      of      CoNBTAMn- 
NOPLBi   PBOFBBBOR  OF  SaCRBD   ScRIFTUBB   AND 

History,  Gbbbk  Cathouc  Sbminart  of  Kadi« 
Kauiy  Constantinoplb:  Mater;  Maxiinian- 
opolis;  MazimopoliB:  Medea;  Me^ara;  Melitene; 
Mek)s;  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  Armenia, 
Delegation  Apostolic  of;  Messene;  Metropolis; 
Milevum;  Milopotamos;  Mopsuestia;  Mossul; 
Mosynoupolis;  Mush;  Myrina;  Myriophytum; 
NeocsBsarea;  Neociesarea  (Pontus  Polemonia- 
cus);  Neve. 

VALLUET,  LOUIS,  Missionabt  of  Sr.  Fbxncib  di 
Salbb  of  Annbct,  Wii/ts,  England:  Mission- 
aries of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  of  Annecy. 

VAN  HOONACKER,  A.,  Profbbsor  of  Critical 

HiSTORT  OF  THB  OlD  TESTAMENT  AND  ORIENTAL 

Languages,  UNivERsiTr  of  Louyain:  Micheas; 
Nehemias,  Book  of. 

VASCHALDE,  A.A.,  C.S.B.,  Cathouc  Unitersitt 
OF  America,  Washington:  Mesrob;  Nerses, 
I-IV;  Nerses  of  Lambron. 

VERMEERSCH,  ARTHUR,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Doctor 
OF  Social  and  Political  Sciences,  Professor 
OF  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Lou- 
vain:  Modernism. 

WAINEWRIGHT,  JOHN  BANNERMAN,  B.A. 
(OxoN.),  London:  Maxfield,  Thomas,  Vener- 
able; Mayne,  Cuthbert,  Blessed;  Metham,  Sir 
Thomas;  Morgan,  Edward,  Venerable;  Morse, 
Henry,  Venerable;  Morton,  Robert,  Venerable; 
Napper,  George,  Venerable. 

WALLAU,  HEINRICH  WILHELM,  Mainx,  Ger- 
many:  Mentelin,  Johannes. 

WALSH,  JAMES  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Dean  of 
the  Medical  School,  Fordham  Uniyersity, 
New  York:  Mercuriali,  Geronimo;  Mondino 
dei  Lucci;  Morgagni,  GioYanni  Battista;  MOller, 
Johann;  N61aton,  Auguste. 

WALSH,  REGINALD,  O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  S.  Clements,  Robie:  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace. 

WALSH,  T.  J.,  Helena,  Montana:  Montana. 

WARD,  MoR.  BERNARD  CANON,  President, 
St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware,  England: 
Milner,  John. 


WARREN,  KATE  MARY,  Lecturer  in  English 
Literature  under  Uniyersity  of  London 
AT  Westfield  College,  Hampstead,  London: 
Moralities  (Moral  Plays). 

WEBER,  ANSELM,  O.F.M.,  St.  Michael's,  Ari- 
zona: NaYajo  Indians. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Fun- 
damental Theology  and  Church  History, 
Marist  College,  Washington:  Maxentius, 
Joannes;  Mennonites;  Men  of  Understanding; 
Methodism;  Michelians;  Morcelli,  Stefano  An- 
tonio. 

WELD-BLUNDELL,  EDWARD  BENEDICT, 
O.S.B.,  Stanbrook,  England:  More,  Helen 
(Dame  Grertrude). 

WESTLAKE,  N.  H.  J.,  F.S.A.,  Hon.  Member, 
British  and  American  Archjbol.  Soc.  of 
Rome;  Member  of  the  Archjbol.  Assoc,  of 
London  and  of  L'Union  Internationale  des 
Beaux-Arts,  London:  Mosaics. 

WILHELM,  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Battle,  England: 
Mediator. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Lrrr.D., 
London:  Mazzolini,  Ludovico;  Maizuchelli, 
Pietro  Francesco;  Melsi,  Francesco;  Meneses, 
Osorio  Francisco;  Mengs,  Anthon  Rafael;  Mor 
(Moor),  Antonis  Van  Dashorst;  Morigi  (Cara- 
Yaggio),  Michelangelo. 

WILLIS,  JOHN  WILLEY,  M.A.,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Minnesota. 

WINDLE,  BERTRAM  C.  A.,  M.B.,  Sc.D.,  M.D., 
B.Ch.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  Vice-President, 
R.S.A.I.,  Senator,  N.  U.  I.,  President,  Uni- 
yersity College,  Cork:  Mendel,  Mendelism. 

WISSEL,  JOSEPH,  CSS.R.,  Philadelphia,  Penn- 
bylyania:  Neumann,  John  Nepomucene,  Ven- 
erable. 

WITTMANN,  PIUS,  Ph.D.,  Rbichbarchivrat, 
BtoiNGEN,  Germany:  Maximilian  I,  Duke  of 
Bavaria. 

WOLFSGRUBER,  COELESTIN,  O.S.B.,  Vienna: 
Mettemich,  Klemens  Lothar  Wenzel,  Piince 
von;  Migazzi,  Christoph  Anton;  Milde,  Vincens 
Eduard;  Mostar  and  Markana-Trebinje,  Diocese 
of;  Muhlbacher,  Engelbert. 

ZIMMERMANN,  BENEDICT,  O.D.C.,  St.  Luke's 
Priory,  Wincanton,  Somersetshire,  England: 
Netter,  Thomas. 


la 


Tables  of  Abbreviations 

The  followizig  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  Thb  Catholic  Enctclopedia  Id 
XDterpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  woik«    For  more  general  infoimation  see  the  article  Abbreviatignb,  EocLBBiAanoAX* 


L — Genxral  Abbbxvzations. 

a. article. 

ad  an. at  the  year  (Lat.  oJ  annum), 

an.,  ann. the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  anntta^ 

anni)» 

ap in  (Lat.  apudi» 

art article. 

Assyr* Assyrian. 

A.  8 Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V. Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  the 
Anglican  Church — ^the  so-called 
'«Eing  James";  or  "Protestant" 
Bible). 

b bora. 

Bk. Book. 

Bl Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa)}  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie, 

can. canon. 

c^. chapter  (Lat.  caput — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cf. compare  (Lat.  confer). 

cod. codex. 

ool column. 

oond conclusion* 

const.,  ooDStit.  • .  .Lat.  constitutuK 

curft by  the  industiy  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dicUonnaire). 

disp Lat.  diajndoHo, 

diss. Lat.  disaertatio. 

dist Lat.  duHndio. 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

£p.,  Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  epiatola), 

Fr. French. 

gen.  • .  • genus. 

Gr. Greek. 

H.  £.,  Hist.  Ecd.  .Ecdedastical  Histoiy. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.»  ibid. in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id. the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf. below  (Lat.  infra). 

It. Italian. 

L  c,  loc.  eit. at  the  place  quoted  (Lat.  loco 

citato), 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  Uber). 

long longitude. 

Hon Lat.  Monumenta, 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament 

Nat. NationaL 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr. . .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

cikUo), 

Ord Older. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page*  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) para  (part). 

par. paragraph. 

paaaim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly    (a    periodical),    e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q.,  QQ.,  qusBst question,  questions  (Lat.  qtueatio), 

q.  y which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S.,  SS Lat.    Sanctua,   SancH,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — ^used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sess. Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following  page,  sr  pages  (Lat. 

aequena). 

St.,  Sts. Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  aupra), 

s.  V Under   the   corresponding   title 

(Lat.  aub  voce), 

torn volume  (Ijat.  tomiia). 


xiii 


TABLES  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


tr. translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion"! or  '^  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  ".  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

y see  (Lat.  vide). 

Ven Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

U. — ^Abbrsviationb  op  TrrLBB. 

Acta  SS Ada  BandUmim  (BoUandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  Annuaire  ponHfical 

cathoUque. 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.G]llow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq... Smith    and   Cheetham    (ed.), 

Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Waoe  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  chr6t..  .Cabrol  (ed.),  Didumnaire  d'tW" 

chMogie  chritienne  et  de  lUiar- 
gie. 

Diet,  de  th^l.  cath.  .Vacant  and   Mangenot  (ed.), 

Didionnaire      de      th^ologie 

cathoUque, 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog Stephen    (ed.),   Dictionary   of 

National  Biography. 
Hast.,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 
Kirchenlex Wetzer  and  Welto,  Kirchenlexir- 

con, 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patres  QtmcL 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  PatreB  LaHni. 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Didumnaire  de 

la  Bible. 


NOTB  I. — Loige  Roman  numerals  standinc  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  numerals  standinc  alooe  indicate 
ohaptexs.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  iMiges.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  **  Rashdall. 
Universities  of  Europe,  I.  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  that  work;  "I,  p.  ix"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  pace  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

Nora  II. — ^Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  reference  is  always  to 
"Summa  Theologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophis").  The  divisions  of  the  "Summa  TbadL"  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  foUowinc  example:  **  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  ^un  »  refers  the  reader  to  the  •eventh  article  of  tha 
9ixih  question  in  the  fint  part  of  the  seopvul  part,  in  the  response  to  the  second  objection. 

NoTB  III. — ^The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Ecdemastious  is  indicated  by 
Beclu9.^  to  distinguish  it  from  Ecdesiastes  (EcdiM.),  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  V.;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Clhronicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  ptoptr  name,  there  is  a  marked  dii 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A.  V.,  the  form  founc  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parenthana 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  X 

Frontispiece  in  Ck)loiir  page 

St.  Matthew 56 

Maya — ^Tablet  with  Hieroglyph  Inscription,  etc 84 

Cardinal  Mazarin — Philippe  de  Champagne 92 

Cosimo  de'  Medici — Laurentian  Library 120 

Adoration  of  the  Magi — Memling 174 

St.  David's  Cathedral,  St.  David's  Wales 186 

Messina  (1907) 216 

Metal  Work 220 

Bronze  Doors,  RaveUo  (1179)— Barifano  of  Trani 224 

Cathedral,  City  of  Mexico 250 

Cathedral,  Milan 300 

The  Angelas— Millet 312 

MLssal 356 

Mitres  of  Bl.  Nicold  Albergati,  etc 404 

Piet^ — ^Montagna 510 

Mount-Saint-Michel 552 

Mosaic  Map  of  Christian  Palestine  and  Egypt 590 

Moses 596 

Munich 632 

MuriUo 644 

Naples — ^Drying  Macaroni,  etc 686 

Napoleon — ^Paul  Delaroche 694 

Nam! 704 

John  Henry,  Cardinal  Newman 796 


Maps 


Mexico 268 

Ecclesiastical  Provinces  of  Montreal,  Ottawa,  Toronto,  Kingston 546 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


M 

Mau»  Music  of  the. — ^Under  this  heading  will  be  tuo  to  the  Dominus  voblscum  prccedine  the  praverS: 

consideTed  exclusively  the  texts  of  the  Mass  (and  not,  the  Gospel,  and  the  Preface.    Both  of  these  choir  re^ 

therefore,  the  Asperges,  Vidi  aquam,  Litanies,  Prophe-  sponses  vary  from  the  usual  monotone  when  occurring 

cies,  etc.,  which  m  the  Roman  Missal  are  found  more  before  the  Preface;  and  the  Amen  receives  an  upward 

or  less  closely  associated  with  the  Mass  in  certain  inflection  before  the  Pax  Domini,  etc.    Indeed,  the 

seasons  of  the  Church  Year),  which  receive  a  musical  Dominus  vobiscum  and  its  response  vary  in  melody 

treatment.    These  texts  comprise  those  which  are  for  all  the  three  forms  of  the  Preface  (the  Tonus 

sung  (that  is,  recited  in  musical  monotone  with  occa-  Solemms,  the  Tonus  FeriaUs,  the  Tonus  Solemnior 

sioiuJ  cadences  or  inflections)  by  the  celebrant  and  the  foimd  in  the  **  Cantus  Missalis  Romani"),  as  do  also  the 

sacred  ministers  (who  will  be  referred  to  as  priest,  chants  and  responses  of  the  Sursum  corda,  etc.,  pre- 

deaoon,  and  sub-deacon)  and  which  are  styled  "Ac-  ceding  the  Preface.    It  would  be  highlv  desirable  that 

centua  " ;  and  those  which  are  assigned  to  the  choir  and  choirs  be  well  practised  in  these  special ' '  tones "  since 

which  are  styled  "  Concentus".    For  the  sake  of  con-  exact  correspondence  with  the  form  used  by  the  priest 

venience  of  reference  the  Concentus  may  be  divided  is  not  only  of  sesthetic  but  of  practical  value;  for  any 

into  the  following  classes:  first,  those  which  are  foimd  deviation  from  one  of  the  "tones"  into  anotiier  may 

in  the  section  of  the  Roman  Missal  under  the  heading  easily  lead  the  priest  astray  and  produce  a  lamentable 

"Ordinarium Missao  "  (namely,  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Oedo,  confusion  of  forms  which  ought  to  be  kept  distinct. 

Sanctus,  Benedictus,  Agnus  Dei)  and  which  will  be  At  the  end  of  the  priest's  chant  of  the  Pater  noster 

brie^  referred  to  as  tne  Ordinary:   second,  those  ( the  choir  responds  with  Sed  libera  nos  a  malo.    Tlie 

texts  which  are  found  under  the  headings  "  Proprium  sub-deacon  chants  the  Epistle,  the  deacon  the  Gospel, 

de  Tempore",  "Proprium  Sanctorum  ,  "Gommune  The  respective  responses  (Deo  Gratias  and  Laus  tibi 

Sanctorum"    (namely,    Introit,    Gradual,    Alleluia-  Christe)  are  merely  to  be  said  by  the  ministers  of  the 

Verse,  Sequence,  Tract,  Offertory,  Gommunion)  and  Mass,  and  are  not  to  be  sung  or  recited  by  the  choir, 

which  will  be  referred  to  briefly  as  the  Proper,  a  ser-  This  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the  "  Roman  Gradual " 

viceable  but  ambiguous  term  frequently  uJ9ed  to  does  not  assign  ansr  notation  to  these  responses  (see 

describe  these  texts.  " Ecclesiastical  Review",  Nov.,  1903,  p.  539).    To  the 

The  "Graduale  Romanum"  (together  with  the  deacon's  chant  of  the  Ite  missa  est  (or  Benedicamus 

Miasal)  provides  plain-song  melodies  for  all  the  texts  Domino)  the  choir  responds  with  Deo  gratias.    A 

styled  Aocentus  or  Goncentus.    The  Accentus  must  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  permits 

be  plain-song,  and  must  be  that  plain-song  which  is  the  organ  to  supply  for  this  response  wherever  this  if 

found  in  the  present  typical  edition,  styled  the  Vati-  customary  (see  "Cfhurch  Music",  May,  1909,  175-6), 

can  Edition,  of  the  "  Roman  Gradual".    The  Gonccn-  provided  the  response  be  "recited"  m  a  clear  voice 

tus,  if  sung  to  plain-song  melodies,  must  also  be  in  the  (see  "Ghurch  Music",  May,  1907,  229).    The  chant 

approved  form  found  m  the  Vatican  Edition  of  the  melodies  for  all  these  choir-responses  are  given  in  the 

"Gradual";  but  these  texts  may  emplov  "modem"  Vatican  "Gradual"  imder  the  heading  "Toni  Gom- 

(as  opposed  to  "  medieval ")  music,  provided  the  musi-  mimes  Missse  ".    It  is  customary  in  many  churches  to 

cai  treatment  is  in  every  wav  appropriate  as  indicated  harmonize  the  chant-responses  and  even  to  depart  in 

in  the  "Instruction  on  Sacred  Music",  commonly  styled  some  details  from  the  melodies  officiallv  assi^ed  to 

the  "  Motu  Proprio",  issued  by  Pius  X  on  the  Feast  of  the  chant-responses.    In  simmiing  up  the  legislation 

St.  Oecilia,  Patron  of  Ghurch  Music  (22  Nov.,  1903).  in  this  matter,  the  "Motu  Propno'^  says  (No.  12): 

This  "modem"  or  "figured"  music  is  customarily  "With  the  exception  of  the  melodies  proper  to  the 

styled  in  CSiurch  decrees  simplv  musica,  and  the  plain  celebrant  at  the  altar  and  to  the  ministers,  which 

chiEuit  or  plain-son^  is  styled  cantus  (chant).    The  must  be  alwa3rs  sung  only  in  Gregorian  chant,  and 

serviceable  distinction  will  be  employed  throughout  without  the  accompaniment  of  the  organ,  all  the  rest 

this  article:  chart,  chanting,  chanted,  will  rel^r  to  of  the  liturgical  chant  belongs  to  the  choir  of  Levites 

plain-song  melodies;  music,  musical,  to  figured  music,  and,  therefore,  singers  in  church,  even  when  they  are 

I.  AccBNTUS. — ^Iliese  chants  should  never  be  ac-  laymen,  are  really  taking  the  place  of  the  ecclesiastical 

eompaniedlby  the  organ  or  any^  other  instrument.  The  choir.    Hence  the  music  rendered  by  them  must,  at 

priest  intones  the  Gloria  (Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo)  and  least  for  the  greater  part,  retain  tiie  character  of 

the  Credo  ((>edo  in  unum  Deum).    The  choir  must  choral  music. "    But  while  the  choir  is  thus  permitted 

not  repeat  these  words  of  the  intonation,  but  must  be-  to  respond  in  music  or  in  harmonised  chant,  good 

gin  with  Et  in  terra  pax,  etc.,  and  Patrem  omnipo-  taste  might  sugeest  the  desirability  of  respondii^  in 

tentem,  etc.,  respectively.    The  priest  also  sings  the  unharmonised  chant  according  to  the  exact  melodies 

Collects  and   post-Communions  and  the   Dominus  provided  in  the  "Toni  Commimes  Missse". 

vobiscum  and  Oremus   preceding  them.    Amen  is  Inasmuchasthe  Vatican  "Gradual"  ismeantmerely 

sung  by  the  choir  at  the  end  of  these  prayers,  as  also  for  the  use  of  the  choir,  the  complete  Accentus  of  the 

after  the  Per  omnia  ssecula  sseculorum  preceding  the  celebrant  and  ministers  will  not  be  found  there.    The 

Preface,  the  Pater  noster  and  the  Pax  Domini  .  .  .  Missal  contains  these  chants  in  full  (except,  of  course, 

fobiscum.    The  choir  responds  with  £t  cum  spiritu  the  chants  for  the  prayers,  prophecies,  etc.,  which  are 

X.— X  1 


to  be  recited  or  sung  acoording  to  certain  ceneral 
forms  which  are  indicated  in  the  *'Toni  Com.  Mis.")- 
However,  a  number  of  changes  made  in  the  Missal 
melodies  oy  order  of  the  Vatican  Commission  on  Chant 
have  been  comprised  in  a  separate  publication  entitled 
"CantuB  Miflsalis  Roman!"  (Rome,  Vatican  Press, 
1007),  which  has  been  edited  in  various  styles  by  com- 
petent publishers  of  liturgical  books.  Henceforth  no 
publisher  is  permitted  to  print  or  publish  an  edition  of 
the  Bfissal  containing  the  melodies  in  use  heretofore, 
but  must  insert  the  new  melodies  according  to  the 
scheme  found  in  the  "Cantus  Missalis  Romani". 
Some  of  the  new  melodic  forms  are  to  appear  in  the 
places  occupied,  in  the  typical  edition  of  the  Missal 
(1900),  by  tne  forms  hitherto  in  use,  while  some  are  to 
be  placed  in  an  Appendix. 

The  Decree  of  8  June,  1907,  contains  the  following 
clauses:  (1)  Dating  from  this  day,  the  proofs  contain- 
ing the  new  typical  chant  of  the  Missal  are  placed  by 
the  Holv  See  without  special  conditions,  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  publishers,  who  can  no  longer  print  or 
publish  the  chiuit  of  the  Missals  in  use  at  present.  (2) 
The  new  typical  chant  must  be  inserted  in  the  new 
editions  exactly  in  the  same  place  as  the  old.  (3)  It 
may,  however,  be  published  separately  or  it  may  be 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  older  Missals  now  in  print,  and 
m  both  of  these  cases  may  bear  the  general  title, "  Can- 
tus  miiwalia  Romani  iuxta  editionem  Vaticanam". 
(4)  The  Tract  Sicut  oervus  of  Holy  Satinxlay  must  here- 
after be  printed  with  the  words  only,  without  chant 
notation.  (5)  The  intonations  or  chants  ad  lilnhim, 
Asperges  me,  Gloria  in  excelsis,  and  the  more  solemn 
tones  of  the  Prefaces  must  not  be  placed  in  the  body 
of  the  Missal,  but  only  at  the  end,  in  the  form  of  a 
supplement  or  appendix;  to  them  (the  ad  lUntum  in- 
tonations or  chants)  may  be  added,  either  in  the  Mis- 
sals or  in  separate  publications  of  the  chanted  parts, 
the  chants  oi  the"  Toni communes  *\  already  published 
in  the  "Gradual",  which  have  reference  to  the  sacred 
ministers.  (6)  No  change  is  made  in  the  words  of  the 
text  or  in  the  rubrics,  which,  therefore,  must  be  re- 
produced without  modification,  as  in  the  last  typical 
edition  (1900). 

In  the  midst  of  the  perplexities  inevitably  asso- 
ciated with  such  modifications  of  or  additions  to  the 
former  methods  of  rendering  the  Accentus,  Dom 
Johner,  O.S.B.,  of  the  Beuron  Congregation,  hss  come 
to  the  assistance  of  clerics,  by  collecting  into  one  con- 
veniently arranged  manual  ("Cantus  Ecclesiastici 
iuxta  editionem  Vaticanam",  Ratisbon,  1909:  146 
pages,  12  mo.)  fdl  of  the  Accentus  (including  the  re- 
sponses) found  in  the  "Toni  Communes  Miss®"  of  the 
''Graduale  Romanum"  (1908)  and  in  the  "Cantus 
Missalis  Romani"  (1908).  These  he  has  illustrated 
with  appropriate  extracts  from  the  "  Rubricie  Missalis 
Romam",  and  has  added  comments  and  explanations 
of  his  own  in  brackets  in  order  to  distinguish  them 
from  official  matter  (e.  g.  pp.  14,  15,  when  discussing 
the  festal  tone  of  the  Oratio).  WhUe  such  a  volume 
is  appropriate  for  the  study  or  the  class-room,  the  in- 
tonations of  the  priest  and  deacon  have  been  issued 
for  use  in  the  sanctuary,  io  various  forms.  At 
Toumai,  Bel^um,  is  published  "  Intonationes  cele- 
brantis  in  Missa  ad  exemplar  editionis  Vaticanse" 
(containing  the  Asperges,  Vidi  a(|uam,  Gloria,  Credo, 
Ite  Missa  est,  Benedicamus  Domino,  for  all  the  masses 
contained  in  the  "  Kyriale  ")  on  seven  cards  of  Bristol- 
board  which  are  enclosed  in  a  case  and  also  in  f  onn  of 
a  pamphlet  bound  in  cloth.  At  DQsseldorf  is  is- 
sued a  collection  of  the  intonations  (under  the  title  of 
"Tabula  Intonationum")  of  the  Gloria  (15),  Credo 
(4),  Ite  Missa  est  and  Benedicamus  (17),  and  Requies- 
cant  in  pace,  pasted  on  thin  but  strong  cardboard 
(cloth-covered)  of  four  pages.  These  are  given  here 
merely  as  illustrations  oi  the  practical  means  at  hand 
for  actually  inaugurating  the  reform  of  the  Accentus; 
other  publishers  of  the  official  editions  of  the  chant 


books  may  be  consulted  for  other  forms  for  use  in  the 
sanctuary. 

Some  of  these  forms  of  chant-intonations  are  for  use 
ad  libitum.  The  various  intonations  of  the  Gloria  and 
Credo  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  succeeding  chant  of 
the  choiCj  while  those  of  the  Ite  Missa  est  or  Benedica- 
mus are  frequently  identical  in  melody  with  the  chant 
of  the  Kyrie  eleison.  Nominally,  these  chants  and  in- 
tonations are  assigned  to  definite  seasons  of  the 
Church  Year  or  to  peculiar  kinds  of  rite  (solemn, 
double,  semi-double,  ferial,  etc.),  but  inasmuch  asper- 
mission  has  been  given  to  use  the  chants  of  the  "  Kyri- 
ale" indifferently  for  anv  rite  or  season,  the  only  re- 
quirement to  be  met  by  the  priest  is  the  artistic  one,  of 
singinff  the  intonation  of  the  Mass  which  the  choir  will 
actualrjr  render  in  chant.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
many  mtonations  furnished  do  not  represent  an  ob- 
ligatory burden  but  merely  a  laige  liberty  of  choice. 
The  chant  of  the  Ite  missa  est  by  the  deacon  would 
seem  similarly  to  be  a  matter  of  artistic  appropriate- 
ness rather  than  of  lituigical  law. 

II.  The  Concbntus. — ^These  texts  may  be  sung  in 
chant  or  in  music.  If  chant  be  used,  it  must  be  elSier 
that  contained  in  the  "Vatican  Gradual,"  or  some 
other  approved  form  of  the  "traditional  melodies" 
(toe  "Motu  Proprio"  of  25  April,  1904,  d:  the  De- 
cree of  the  S.  R.  C,  11  August,  1905,  VI;  the  Decree 
prefixed  to  the  "  Kyriale '%  dated  14  August,  1905, 
closing  paragraph) ;  if  the  setting  be  musical,  it  must 
meet  all  the  requirements  summarily  indicated  in  the 
"Motu  Proprio^'  of  22  November,  1903  (see  Music, 
Ecclesiastical).  Under  the  heading  of  Concentus 
.must  be  considered  (a)  the  Ordinary,  (b)  the  Proper.  \ 
\  (a)  The  Ordinary. — ^The  texts  are  those  of  the  Kyrie,. 
\the  Gloria,  the  Credo,  the  Sanctus,  the  Benedictus, 
the  Agnus  Dei.  A  collection  of  these,  or  a  portion  of 
them,  is  styled  simply  a  "Mass".  When  several 
"Masses"  are  written  bv  the  same  composer,  they  are 
differentiated  numericafly  (e.  g.  Mosart  s  No.  1,  No.  2, 
No.  17)  or  by  dedication  to  some  particular  feast  (e.  g. 
Gounod's  "  Messe  de  Paques  "),  or  saint  (e.  g.  Gounod  s 
"St.  Cecilia"  Mass),  or  devotion  (e.  g.  Goimod's 
"Messe  du  SacrS  Coeur"),  or  musical  association  (e.  g. 
Gounod's  "Messe  desOrph6onistes",  Nos.  I,  II),  or 
musical  patron  (e.  g.  Palestrina's  "Missa  Pape  Mar- 
celli"),  or  special  occasion  (e.  g.  Cherubini's  "Third 
Mass  in  A"  entitled  the  "Coronation  Mass",  as  it  was 
composed  for  the  coronation  of  King  Charles  X).  The 
title  Missa  Brevis  is  sometimes  employed  for  a  Mass 
reauiring  only  a  moderate  time  for  its  rendition  (e.  g. 
Palestrina's"  Missa  Brevis  "  *  Andrea  Gabrieli's  printed 
in  Vol.  I.  of  Proske's  "Musica  Divina")  although  the 
term  scarcely  applies,  save  in  another  sense^  to  J.  S. 
Bach's  "  Missa  crevis  "  (in  A)  comprising  in  its  forty- 
four  closely  printed  pases  only  the  music  of  the  Kyrie 
and  Gloria.  In  some  Masses  the  place  of  the  Benedic- 
tus is  taken  by  an  O  Salutaris.  A  polyphonic  Mass 
composed,  not  upon  themes  taken  from  chant  melo- 
dies (as  was  the  custom),  was  styled  "sine  nomine". 
Those  founded  upon  chant  subjects  were  thus  styled 
(e.  g.  Palestrina's  "Ecce  Sacerdos  Magnus",  "Virtute 
Ma^pa  ",  etc.)  or  when  founded  on  secular  song  themes 
unblushingly  bore  the  appropriate  title  (e.  g.  Pale&- 
trina's  "lyhomme  arm^  ;.  Masses  were  sometimes 
styled  by  the  name  of  the  chant-mode  in  which  they 
were  composed  (e.  g.  "Primi  Toni")  or.  founded  on 
the  hexachordal  ^stem,  were  styled  *^  Missa  super 
voces  musicales"  (Missa  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La);  or 
bore  as  title  the  number  of  voices  employed  (e.  g. 
"Missa  Quatuor  Vociim"). 

This  is  not  the  place  to  rehearse  the  story  of  the 
gradual  development  and  corruption  of  ecclesiastical 
music,  of  the  many  attempts  at  reform,  and  of  the 
latest  pronouncements  of  tne  Holy  See  which  oblige 
consciences  with  all  the  force  of  uturgical  law.  An 
excellent  summary  of  this  history  is  given  by  Dr. 
Rockstro  in  Grove's  "Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musi* 


MASS 


MASS 


cians"  (a.  v.  Mass),  which  may  be  supplemented  by 
tike  recent  abund&at  literature  of  the  reform-move- 
ment in  Church  Music.  It  is  of  more  immediate  and 
practioftl  importance  to  indicate  the  various  cata- 
logues or  lists  of  music  compiled  bv  those  who  are 
seekiDg  to  reform  the  music  of  the  Mass.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  reflect  that  in  lus  earlier  le^slation  on  this 
subject,  Leo  XIU  recommended  a  diocesan  commis- 
sion to  draw  up  a  diocesan  Index  of  Repertoires,  or  at 
least  to  sanction  the  performance  of  pieces  therein  in- 
dicate, whether  puolished  or  impuolished.  In  the 
later  Regoiamenio  of  6  July,  1894,  the  S.  C.  of  Rites 
does  not  refer  to  any  such  index  but  merely  requires 
bishops  to  exercise  appropriate  supervision  over  the 
pastors  so  that  inappropriate  music  may  not  be  heard 
m  their  churches.  The  present  pope  has  nowhere  in- 
dicated the  necessity,  or  even  the  aavisability,  of  com- 
piling such  an  index  or  catalogue,  but  has  required  the 
ai>pomtment,  in  every  diocese,  of  a  competent  com- 
mission which  shall  supervise  musical  matters  and  see 
that  the  legi^tion  of  tne  **  Motu  Proprio"  be  properly 
carried  out. 

Nevertheless,  it  was  the  stimulus  of  the  Regoiamenio 
of  1894  which  led  to  the  compilation,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Cincinnati,  of  a  highly  informing  "First  Official  Cata- 
logue" of  that  diocesan  commission,  which  was  made 
obiigatofy  by  Archbishop  Elder  in  a  letter  dated  26 
July,  1899,  and  which  was  to  go  into  operation  on  the 
First  Sunday  of  Advent  (3  Dec.)  of  tnat  year.  The 
commission  requested  pastors  to  submit  the  music 
used,  for  inspection  b^  the  commission.  The  cata- 
logue does  not  content  itself  with  approving  certain  of 
these  compositions,  but  takes  the  trouble  both  to  mark 
"  rejected  after  the  various  titles  and  to  give,  usuaU]^, 
the  reason  for  the  rejection.  In  the  following  year  it 
issued  its  "Second  Official  Catalogue '\  Both  cata- 
logues are  important  as  illustrating  the  exact  musical 
conditions  of  one  great  diocese,  and  show  forth  more 
searchingly  than  many  arguments  the  need  of  reform. 
These  catalogues  have  been  rendered  obsolete  by  the 
more  stringent  recent  I^ipslation. 

But,  although  that  legislation  has  not  prescribed  the 
compilation  of  lists  of  approved  music,  many  such 
catalogues  or  lists  have  been  compiled.  They  all  pay 
great  attention  to  the  music  of  tne  Mass,  and  should 
prove  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  choir-masters  [see 
""Church  Music",  Dec.,  1905,  80-92;  March,  1906, 
157-168;  Sept.,  1906,  541-545,  for  an  account  of  the 
two  Cincinnati  catalogues,  and  for  those  of  Salford, 
Eng.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  Pittsbuigr  Pa«»  Water- 
fora  and  Lismore,  Ireland,  Covington,  Ky.,  Liverpool, 
£^g.,  and  Mets.  These  should  oe  supplemented  by 
Singenbexger,  "  Guide  to  Catholic  Church  Music  "  (St. 
Francis,  Wisconsin,  1905);  Terry.  "Catholic  Church 
Music"  (London.  1907),  201-21 3;  the  lists  of  publishers 
who  understand  and  respect  the  provisions  of  the 
*'Motu  Proprio",  and  the  review-pages  of  the  many 
magaxinee,  in  various  lands,  devoted  to  the  reform 
movement  in  sacred  music].  Correct  and  appropriate 
music  for  Mass,  for  all  degrees  of  musical  abihty  or 
choral  attainment  and  of  tne  greatest  abundance  and 
freshness  and  individuality  of  style,  can  now  be  easily 
obtained. 

In  selecting  a  Mass  it  is  always  advisable  to  read  the 
text  in  order  to  see  that  it  is  both  complete  and  lituigi- 
caliy  coirect;  that  there  should  be  no  alteration  or  in- 
version of  the  words,  no  undue  repetition,  no  breakii^ 
of  syllables.  In  addition,  the  "Motu  Proprio"  speci- 
fies [No.  11  (a)]:  "The  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  etc.,  of 
the  Mass  must  preserve  the  unity  of  composition 
proper  to  their  text.  It  is  not  lawful,  therefore,  to 
compoae  them  in  separate  pieces,  in  such  a  way  that 
each  €i  those  pieces  may  form  a  complete  composition 
in  itself,  and  be  capable  of  being  detached  from  the 
rest,  and  substituted  by  another".  It  further  re- 
marks (No.  22) :  "It  is  not  lawful  to  keep  the  priest  at 
Ibe  altar  waiting  on  account  of  the  chant  or  toe  music 


for  a  length  of  time  not  allowed  by  the  lituiic|r.  Ao- 
cording  to  the  ecclesiastical  prescriptions  theSanctus 
of  the  Mass  should  be  over  before  the  Elevation  and 
therefore  the  priest  must  have  regard  to  the  singers. 
The  Gloria  and  Credo  ought,  according  to  the  Grego- 
rian tradition,  to  be  relatively  short." 

Something  remains  to  be  said  of  the  chant  of  the 
Ordinaiy  which  is  foimd  in  the  separate  small  volume 
entitled  "Kyriale".  It  is  issued  oy  the  various  com- 
petent publishers  in  all  styles  of  printmg,  paper,  binding, 
m  lar^  and  small  forms;  in  medieval  and  in  modem 
notation;  with  and  without  certain  "rhythmical 
signs '\  (See  "Church  Music",  passim,  for  review- 
notices  of  the  various  issues;  and  particularly  March, 
1906,  pp.  235-249,  for  an  elaborate  article  on  the 
earlier  issues.)  The  eighteen  "Masses"  it  contains 
are  nominally  assigned  to  various  <^ua]ities  of  rite; 
but,  in  accordance  with  ancient  tradition  and  with  the 
unanimous  agreement  of  the  pontifical  Commission  on 
the  Chant,  liberty  has  been  granted  to  select  any 
"Mass"  for  any  quality  of  rite  (see  the  note  "Quoft- 
libet  cantus"  etc.,  p.  64  of  the  Vatican  Edition  of  the 
"Kyriale":  "Any  chant  assigned  in  this  Ordinarium 
to  one  Mass  may  be  used  in  any  other;  in  the  same 
way,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  Mass  or  the  de- 
cree of  solemnity,  any  one  of  those  which  follow  [that 
is,  in  the  section  styled  "Cantus  ad  libitum'^  may  be 
tiiken")-  The  decrees  relating  to  the  publishing  of 
editions  based  on  this  typical  edition,  and  to  its  pro- 
mulgation, are  given  in  Latin  and  English  translation 
in  "Church  Music",  March,  1906,  pp.  250-256. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  this  tjipicEU  edition  gives  no 
direction  about  singing  the  Benedictus  alter  liie 
Elevation,  but  prints  both  chants  in  such  juxtaposi- 
tion aa  to  surest  that  the  Benedictus  mig)it  be  sung 
before  the  Elevation.  In  the  "Revue  du  Chant 
Gr^gorien"  (Aug.-Oct.,  1905),  its  editor,  Canon  Groa- 
pellier,  who  was  one  of  the  Consultors  of  the  Gregorian 
Commission,  said  that  he  was  inclined  to  think  that, 
where  time  allows,  the  Benedictus  mi^t  be  simg  im- 
mediately after  tne  Sanctus.  Tlie  Pontifical  Com- 
mission at  its  meeting  at  Appuldurcombe.  in  1904, 
unanimously  accepted  a  resolution  to  this  effect,  llie 
preface  to  the  Vatican  "Gradual",  while  giving 
minute  directions  for  the  ceremonial  rendering  of  the 
chants  merely  says:  "When  the  Preface  is  miished, 
the  choir  goes  on  with  the  Sanctus.  etc."  At  the 
elevation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  tne  choir  is  silent 
like  every  one  else.  Nevertheless,  inasmuch  as  the 
"Gradual"  does  not  declare  that  the  Benedictus  is  to 
be  chanted  after  the  Elevation,  the  "etc."  is  imder- 
stood  to  imply  that  it  should  be  simg  immediately 
after  the  Sanctus.  The  "  Csremoniale  Episooporum  ". 
however,  directs  that  it  be  sung  "  after  the  elevation  or 
the  chalice".  The  apparent  conflict  of  authorities 
may  be  harmonized  by  supposing  that  the  "Csere- 
moniale ' '  legislated  for  the  case  of  musically  developed 
(e.  g.  polyphonic)  settings  of  the  Sanctus  and  the 
Benedictus,  whose  length  would  necessitate  their 
separation  from  each  other;  while  the  "Gradual" 
contemplates,  of  course,  the  much  briefer  settings  of 
the  plain-song  (see  "  Church  Music  ",  Jan.,  1909,  p.  87). 

(b)  The  fVopcr.— While  the  texts  of  the* Ordinaiy. 
do  not  (with 'the  exception  of  the  Agnus  Dei,  which  is 
altered  in  Requiem  Mass)  change,  those  which  com- 
monly, but  somewhat  ambiguously,  are  called  the 
"Proper",  change  in  accordance  witli  the  character  of 
the  feast  or  Simoay  or  ferial  day.  These  texts  are  the 
Introit,  Gradual,  Alleluia-Verse,  Sequence.  Tract. 
Offertory,  Communion.  Not  all  of  these  will  oe  found 
in  any  one  Mass.  Thus,  e.  g.  Holy  Saturday  has  no  In- 
troit. Gradual,  Offertoiy,  Communion;  from  Low 
Sunday  to  Trinity  Simday,  the  Gradual  is  replaced  by 
an  Alleluia- Verse;  from  Septuagesima  to  Easter,  as 
well  as  on  certain  penitential  days,  the  Alleluia- Verse, 
which  ordinarily  follows  the  Gradual,  is  replaced  by  a 
Tract;  in  only  a  few  Masses  is  a  Sequence  used;  there 


MASS                                   4  liASS 

is  no  Introit  on  Whitsiin  Eve,  while  the  customaiy  in  "Church  Music"  Jan.,  1907.  127-128; Mar.,  1908, 

Gloria  Patri  after  the  Introit  is  omitted  durinjg  Passion-  171-178;  see  also  June,  1906,  ''One  Outcome  of  tlie 

tide.    In  Requiem  Masses  the  Gloria  Patri  is  omitted  Discussion",  409-415,  including  a  specimen-four-page 

after  the, Introit,  a  Tract  and  a  Sequence  follow  the  of  Dr.  Tozer's  method  of  treatment  of  the  Proper  text. 

Gradual. «  Nor  do  the  texts  differ  for  every  feast,  as  is  A  third  volume  which  will  comprise  various  local  texts 

iliustrated  by  the  division  of  the  Sanctorale  into  the  is  in  coiuse  of  preparation.    Another  method  is  that 

''Proprium  de  Sanctis"  and  the  "Commune  Sane-  imdertaken  by  Maroello  Capra.  of  Turin,  ItsJy,  which 

torum",  this  latter  division  grouping  the  feasts  into  provides  musical  settings  for  tne  Proper  of  the  princi- 

dasses,  such  as  the  feasts  of  confessors-bishops,  con-  pal  feasts,  for  one  or  two  voices,  and  with  easy  organ 

fes&ors-not-bishope,  martyrs,  virgins,  etc.,  in  which  accompaniment.    Still   another  method  is  that  of 

the  texts  of  the  "Proper"  serve  for  many  feasts  of  Giulio  Bas,  who  has  compiled  a  volume,  ''Gradualis, 

the  "Propers"  in  many  chiut^hes.    They  are,  how-  Versus  Alleluia ticietTractus"  (DQsseldorf,  1910),  of 

ever,  an  mtegral  part  of  the  duty  of  the  choir,  and  plain -song  settings  from  the  Ambrosian,  Aqmleian, 

must  be  sung,  or  at  least  "recited",  in  a  clear  and  Greek,  Mozarabio  chant,  for  Sundays  and  Double 

intelligible  voice,  the  organ  meanwhile  sustaining  Feasts,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  rendering  of  the 

appropriate  chords.  more  difficult  portions  of  the  Proper. 

In  a  Rescript  dated  8  August,  1906,  the  S.  R.  C,  However  rendered,  these  chants  of  the  Proper  must 
answeringquestions  proposed  by  the  Abbot  of  Santa  not  be  omitted  or  curtailed.  But  apart  from  this 
Maria  Maggiore  in  Naples,  declares  that  in  solemn  liturgical  necessity,  they  challenge  admiration  because 
Mass,  when  the  organ  is  used,  the  Gradual,  Offertory,  of  their  devotional,  poetic,  lesthetic  perfection:  "If 
Communion,  when  not  sung,  must  be  recited  in  a  hi^  we  pass  in  review  before  our  musical  eye  the  wonderful 
and  intelligiDle  voice,  and  that  the  Deo  Gratias  follow-  thoughts  expressed  in  the  Introits,  Graduals,  Alleluia 
ing  the  Ite  missa  est  should  receive  the  same  treat-  Verses,  Tracts,  Offertories,  and  Communions  of  the 
ment  (see  "Church  Music",  May,  1907,  229-23^).  whole  ecclesiastical  year,  from  the  first  Sunday  in  Ad- 
Previous  answers  of  the  S.  R.  C.  were  of  similar  tenor,  vent  to  the  last  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  as  wc^  as  those 
Thus  (Ooimbra,  14  April,  1753):  in  a  "Community  of  the  numerousMassesof  the  saints,  apostles, martyis. 
Mass"  it  is  always  necessary  to  sing  the  Gloria,  Credo,  confessors,  virgins,  we  must  feel  that  in  the  Roman 
all  of  the  Gradual,  the  Preface,  Pater  noster ;  so,  too,  a  Church  we  have  an  anthology  worthy  of  our  hifliiest 
question  from  Chiogsia  in  1875,  as  to  whether  the  cua-  admiration"  (Rev.  H.  Bewenmge,  "  Address  at  Lon- 
tom  introduced  into  that  diocese  of  omitting  the  chant  don  Eucharistio  Congress ") .  It  should  be  a  iiart  of  a 
of  the  Gradual,  the  Tract,  the  Sequence,  the  Offertory,  choirmaster's  business  to  teanslate  and  ^q>lain  these 
the  Benedictus,  the  Commimion  was  contrary  to  the  texts  to  his  choir,  that  they  may  be  recited  or  sung 
rubrics  and  decisions  of  the  S.R.C.,  was  answered  affir-  with  the  understanding  as  well  as  with  the  voice.  To 
matively,  and  the  questioner  was  remitted  to  the  Coim-  this  end  the  "  Missal  for  the  Laity",  with  its  Latin  and 
bra  decision.  A  specific  difficulty  was  offered  for  parallel  English  version,  migjit  l>e  used.  Tlie  spirit  of 
solution  by  a  bishop  who  declared  that  in  his  diocese  the  liturgy  might  also  be  largely  acquired  from  the 
where  a  sin^e  chanter  was  used,  and  where  the  people  volumes  of  Dom  Gu^ranger's  "Liturgical  Year".  As 
had  to  hurry  to  their  daily  work,  the  custom  had  ob-  this  is,  however,  such  an  extensive  work,  the  much 
tained  (throughout  almost  the  Wnole  diocese)  of  omit-  briefer  and  more  direct  treatments  of  the  texts  of  the 
ting,  in  stipendiary  Masses,  the  Gloria,  Gradual,  Tract,  Proper  with  comment  on  the  spirit,  which  ran  serially 


Sequence,  Credo.    He  was  answered  (29  Dec.,  1884)  through  the  issues  of  "Churcn  Music",  would  prove 

that  the  custom  was  an  abuse  that  must  be  absolutely  hi^ly  serviceable. 

eliminated.    The  spirit  of  the  Church  le^lation  is  With  respect  to  the  plain-soxig  settinj^,  two  typical 

summed  up  in  the  "Motu  Proprio"  (22  Nov.,  1903,  chants  should  be  studied  carefully  (see  Dom  Eudme's 

No.  8):  "As  the  texts  that  may  be  rendered  in  music,  articles  in  "Church  Music".  Marcn,  1906,  222-235,  on 

and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  rendered,  are  "  the  Gradual  for  Easter",  ^'the  Habc  dies",  and  June, 

determined  for  every  fimction,  it  is  not  lawful  to  con-  1906,  360-373,  on  "the  Introit  Gaudeamus",  which 

fuse  this  order  or  to  change  the  |>rescribed  texts  for  give  the  plain-son«;  notation  with  transcription  into 

othera  collected  at  will,  or  to  omit  them  entirely  or  modem  notation,  rnythniical  and  dynamical  analyses, 

even  in  part,  except  when  the  rubrics  allow  that  some  etc.).    Such  a  study  will  encourage  the  present  day 

versicles  of  the  text  be  supplied  with  the  organ  while  musician  to  acquire  a  greater  familiarity  with  the 

these  vereicles  are  simply  recited  in  choir.    It  is  per-  plain-song  of  the  Proper  which  present-day  choira 

missible,  however,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  should  have:   "First,  there  is  the  Gregorian  Chant. 

Roman  Church,  to  sing  a  motet  to  the  Blessed  Sacra-  The  more  one  studies  these  ancient  melodies  the  more 

ment  after  the  Benedictus  in  a  solemn  Mass.    It  is  also  one  is  imoressed  by  their  variety  and  rare  beauty. 

germitted  after  the  Offertoiy  prescribed  for  the  Mass  Take  the  oistinctiveness  of  their  forms,  the  character- 
as  been  sung,  to  execute  during  the  time  that  istic  style  which  distinguishes  an  Introit  from  a  Grad- 
remains  a  brief  motet  to  words  approved  by  the  ual.  an  Offertory  from  a  Communion.  Then  within 
durdi."  eacn  class  what  variety  of  expression,  what  amazing 
A  practical  difficulty  is  encoimtered  in  the  fact  that  interpretation  of  the  words,  and  above  all  what  sub- 
many  choirs  have  met  ihe  limit  of  their  capacity  in  lime  beauty  and  mystical  spirit  of  prayer!  Certainly, 
preparing  the  chant  or  music  of  the  Ordinary,  whose  anyone  who  has  tasted  the  sweetness  of  these  chants 
texts  are  fixed  and  repeated  freauently.  How  shall  must  envy  the  few  privileged  places  where  there  is 
such  choirs  prepare  for  a  constantly  chan^g  series  of  high  Mass  every  day  and  thus  a  chance  is  given  of 
Proper  texts,  whether  in  chant  or  in  music?  Several  hearing  all  of  these  divine  strains  at  least  once  a  year" 
practical  solutions  of  the  difficulty  have  been  offered.  (Bewerunge). 

Thereis,  first  of  all,  the  easy  device  of  recitation.    For  There  is  a  lanre  body  of  settings  of  the  classical 

an  elaborate  discussion  of  the  times  when  it  may  be  polyphonic  schools,  and  of  modem  polyphony,  as  also 

used,  the  character  it  should  assume,  the  legal  aspects  mucn  illustration  of  modem  homopnonic  music,  of  the 

and  decisions  concerning  it,  see  the  Rev.  LudwigBon-  proper  texts.    Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 

vin's  article  in  "Church  Music,  "March,  1906,  pp.  146-  texts  thus  treated  are  verbally  correct.    For  in  the 

156.    Then  there  is  the  solution  offered  in  the  excel-  return  to  the  traditional  melodies  of  the  chants,  the 

lent  and  laborious  work  of  Dr.  Edmund  Tozer,  who  comxmssion  foimd  it  necessary  to  restore,  in  very 

prepared  simple  psalm-like  settings  which  could  be  many  instances,  omitted  portions  of  text,  and  in 

easuy  mastered  by  a  fairly  equipped  choir.    The  work  various  ways  to  restore  to  use  the  more  ancient 

"The  Proper  of  the  Mass  for  Sundays  and  Holidays"  forms  of  the  texts.    In  the  "Proprium  de  Tem- 

CNew  York,  1907-1908,  Vol.  n,  No.  2926)  is  reviewed  pore",  for  instance,  there  are  about  200  textual 


MA88                                  5  MA88 

dumges.  A  summary  view  of  their  general  character  Mass,  Nuptmll^  ' '^fissa  pro  8ix>nso  et  bponsa ",  the 
is  given  in  ''Church  Music"  (July,  1908),  pp.  232-235.  last  among  the  votive  Masses  in  the  Missal.  It  is 
Since  these  altered  texts  differ  from  those  still  retained  composed  of  lessons  and  chants  suitable  to  the  Sacra- 
in  the  Missal,  choirs  which  "recite"  the  texts  will  do  ment  of  Matrimony,  contains  prayers  for  persons  just 
so  from  the  Vatican  "Gradual",  and  not  from  the  married  and  is  interwoven  with  part  of  tne  marriage 
Missal.  When  the  "  Gradual"  was  first  issued,  it  was  rite,  of  which  in  the  complete  form  it  is  an  element, 
noticed  that  the  Propers  of  some  American  feasts  (as  As  the  Mass  was  looked  upon  as  the  natural  accompani- 
also,  of  course,  the  Propers  of  many  foreign  dioceses  ment  of  any  solemn  function  (ordination,  consecration 
as  well)  were  omitted  (see  "Church  Music,"  March,  of  churches,  etc.),  it  was  naturally  celebrated  as  part 
1908,  132-134).  Some  publishers  have  added  these  ,  of  the  marriage  service.  Tertullian  (d.  about  220;  ad 
Propers  for  America,  in  an  appendix  bound  in  with  the  Uxor.,  II,  9)  mentions  the  oblation  that  confirms 
volume.  Doubtless  a  similar  process  will  be  adopted  marriage  (matrimonium  ouod  ecclesia  conciliat  et  con- 
in  tJbe  case  of  many  foreign  dioceses.  firmat  obLatio).  All  theltoman  Sacramentaries  con- 
Many  questions  which  touch  the  musical  part  of  the  tain  the  nuptial  Mass  (The  Leonine,  ed.  Feltoe, 
services  at  Mass  belong  to  the  general  subject  of  the  140-142;  The  Gelasiaxi.  ed.  Wilson,  265-267;  The 
reform  movement  in  Church  Music,  and  will  be  more  Gregorian,  P.  L.,  i;JCXVIII,  261-264),  with  our 
appropriately  treated  under  the  heading  Mttbic.  present  prayers  and  others  (a  special  Hone  Igiiur  and 
ESccLBBiAflTiCAii.  Such  are,  e.  g.  the  long  debated  Preface).  The  Gelasian  Sacramentary  (loc.cit.)  con- 
matter  of  the  use  of  women's  voices  in  our  gallery-  tains,  moreover,  the  blessing  now  said  after  the  Ite 
choirs;  the  capabilities  of  chorister  boys  for  the  proper  missa  est,  then  said  after  the  Communion,  a  Galilean 
rendition  of  the  Ordinaiy  and  the  Proper;  the  use  of  addition  (Duchesne,  "Origines  du  Culte",  Paris,  ed. 
chants  with  rhvthmical  signs  added;  the  characterof  2,  1898,  p.  417).  Pope  Nicholas  I  (858-867)  in  his 
the  rhythm  to  be  used  ("  oratorical "  or  "  measured  ") ;  instruction  for  the  Bulgars,  in  866,  describes  the  whole 
the  character  of  accompaniment  best  suited  to  the  rite  of  marriage,  including  the  crowning  of  the  man 
chant;  the  use  of  musical  instruments  in  chanted  or  and  wife  that  is  still  the  prominent  feature  of  the  rite 
musical  Masses;  the  status  of  women  as  organists;  the  in  the  Bysantine  Church;  this  rite  contains  a  Mass  at 
adoption  of  a  sanctuarv  choir,  whether  in  place  of,  or  which  the  married  persons  make  the  offertory  and  re- 
in conjunction  with,  the  gallery  choir.  Historically  oeive  communion  (Resp.  ad  cons.  Bulgarorum,  iii, 
the  reform  movement  in  tne  chiemt  was  signalised  by  quoted  by  Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  413-414). 
the  issuance,  first  of  fdl,  df  the  "  Kyriale",  which  con-  The  present  rules  for  a  nuptial  Mass  are:  first,  that 
tains  the  Otdinary  chants,  and  then  of  the ' '  Graduale  ",  it  may  not  be  celebrated  in  tne  closed  time  for  marri- 
which  comprises  all  the  chants  for  Mass;  but  this  ages,  that  is  from  Advent  Sundaytill  after  the  octave 
matter  also  belongs  to  a  more  general  treatment.  of  the  Epiphany  and  from  Ash  Wednesday  till  after 
DocLos.  8a  Sainuu  Pie  X  €i  la  muaique  Rdiffietue  (Rome.  Low  Sunday.    During  these  times  no  reference  to  a 


nrammar  of  Plain-»ano  ( Woroester,  1905) :  see  Index;  Mrrr«RBR,  ^-."^ uuFviai  um  m^ouiixm    ,  i v  uiDpu*«u  ut  uouaujr  w>  uuc 

EceUnaMieal  PrecntB  vn  Reference  to  Church  Mueic  (London,  closed  season.     During  the  rest  of  the  Vear  the  nuptial 

1901);  Waowsr  (BouR  tr.),  Oriffined  DHdopenumt  duChanu  ^f^ss  may  be  said  at  a  wedding  any  day  except  Sun- 

i?S!2M»2&i*2f3^'lti£'1&^^^^  dayB  •«/ feast,  of  obligation,  doubles  of  fee  f,t  and 

1910:  ViaxfUAHH.  Kaii  Pmeke,  der  ReeiaunUor  der  klaeeUchien  second  class  and  such  privileged  fenas  and  octaves  as 

Kirekemuaik  (RAtwbon.  1909).  The  tonomnginChwchMune:  exclude  a  double.    It  may  not  displace  the  Rogation 

Sf  IS?  ^2.^^909?  '&^^^^::^^JnrciJ2SSl'  l^  ^  at  which  the  procession  is  made  nor  ma^lt  dk- 

Modem  Polmthmy  in  Europe  (March.  1908),  147-151;  Idem,  place  at  least  one  Requiem  on  All  Souls'  day.     On 

TA*  Prteent  Statue  o/Plait^wno  "» ^~*»P&V^*"nf  andPnutiee  these  occasions  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Mass  of  the 

li^Kl2rroi2S;'i»  day  to  wWch  conmiemorationsof  the 

(March.  1908).  161 ;  New  Ceremonial  Pointe  for  the  Choir  (Sept.,  added  in  the  last  place  and  at  which  the  blessings  are 

1908).  275;   Daiee  of  the  KyriaieChanie  (^pt..  1908).  281;  inserted  in  their  place.    The  nuptial  blessing  is  con- 

Variant  Texta  of  the  Mteaal  and  Gradual  (Sent.,  1908),  305;  -:jp-^  --  r^^rf  nf  iht*  nnnfiAl  UoLi       Tf  mlvnpvc^r  Ka 

Repetition  of  the  veree  in  the  Gradual  (Jan.,  1900),'  88;  Vatican  BMlerea  as  part  01  tne  nuptial  Mass.    It  may  never  De 

Gradual  (May,  1908).  199-201  (3  artt.);  De  Ritibue  Servandie  in  given  except  dunng  this  Mass  or  dunng  a  MaSS  that 

Cantu  Miaam  (Mar..  190^,  108;  JPre/ace  to.  Gradual  (July,  replaces  it  (and  commemorates  it)  when  it  cannot  be 

Wasdknschwilxr,  Applied  Meneuraliem  (May,  1909).  171;  be  celebrated  after  the  closed  time  for  people  mamed 

HuBouB.  Fr.  Bonvtn'e'^Mieea  pro  Defwufie'  (JwyiiJ?®).  i**;  during  it.    So  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  always  go  to- 

'»S^r'ZS2i.t:«'7iKj2^S^te'SVi  fcr^  ^i^-.   eith^  involves  the  oth<^.  "Sne  iLe  and 

iaiionM  to  Applied  Meneuraliem  Examined  (July,  1909),  223.  blessing  may  be  held  for  several  pairs  of  mamed  people, 

Theae  refermees  to  Mensuraliam  are  made  here  for  historical  ^^o  must  all  be  present.     The  forms,  however,  re- 

IXrif '•aS'lfert^iSdlf  r4f.^?Tt.!?  ^cTt^^  S*'"  ^^^  ""J*^  "  ^l^ ,? .t»ilMia8aI.    The 

Haberl.  18  Feb.,  1910.  declaring  **  absolutely  falae  in  iteelf  and  Mass  and  blessmg  may  not  be  held  if  the  woman  has 

hieUy  prejudicial  to  the  uniform  natoration  of  tt»e  chapt  already  received  this  blessing  in  a  former  marriage. 

throuchout  the  Church    the  ppuupn  which  has  held  that  choir^  rp,  .        i         i    offpotj*  thp  wnmAn  f nr  whom  th«  hlmmir 

mastera  may  give  what  rhythm  they  please  to  the  chant,  and  >  °^  ""®  ^^^Jl  anecis  tne  woman,  lor  wnom  tne  DieSSin^ 

appealing  to  the  evidence  of  the  preface  to  the  "Gradual"  to  IS  more  specially  mtended  (see  the  prayer  Dew  qu% 

prove  the  neceatity  of  "free"  (as  it  is  technically  styled)  poiestcUe),     It  must  be  understood  exactly  as  stated, 

rhythm,  or  that    advocated  in  general  by  the   Benedictmes.  ^l  formpr  mArriAirp  withnnf  this  hlMninir   nr  fhp  fanf 

Moisuralism.  or  "  measured "  rhythm,  is  not  free.    For  a  trans-  ^  lOrmer  mama^e  Wltnout  tms  Dl^mg,  or  tne  lact 

latloQ  of  Card.  Martinelli's  letter  into  English  together  with  that  children  had  been  bom  before  the  marriage,  IS  no 

comment,  see  Eccleeiatiieal  Review  ^J^^ie,  1910),  734-738.  hindrance.     Nor  may  the  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  be 

Schmidt- WBmNO,  i2egiiMmAf««,  reviewed.  (May,  1909),  197,  l  i  j   •      nooAa  of  TnixcKl  mArrimrAfi   (ntixin.  rdAnij^  in 

illustrates  the  necessity  of  continued  caution  in  purehasing  even  °^^  m  cases  01  mixea  marriages  jmtwa  ruwxo)  m 

recently  issued  editions  of  Masses:  Much  omission  of  text.    No  spite  of  any  dispensation.     According  to  the  (Jon- 

Graduale.  no  Communio,  no  libera.    The  Introit  omits  exoudt  stitution  "  Etsi  sanctissunus  Dominus  "  of  Pius  IX  (15 

SSSSSSi^TTeen'^h^^^^^^^           i^i2i."V&"Li"?i5  Nojemtor,  1858),  mixed  marriaps  must  be  celebrated 

nnitsiforty-two  lines  of  text.    The , Offertory  omits  tu  euecipe,  outside  the  church  (m  England  and  Amenca  this  is 

tums/bcetijinto/acuur  and /beeos  (with  propvoxytonerhjrthm),  understood  as  meaning  outside  the  sanctuary  and 

^od  superfluously  adds  Amen  at  the  oad.    The  Sanctus  omits  olu>ir^  wit hnnf  f  ho  KlAnaincr  nf  f  Ha  rinir  nr  nf  f  hn  arviiiflmi 

DominSe,    For  various  editions  of  the  Vatican  chant  books  con-  C'WU';,  Wlinout  tne  Dl«BSing  01  tne  nng  or  of  tne  spouses 

suit  Chwth  Mueie  (passun).  Without  any  ecclesiastical  nte  or  vestment,  without 

H.  T.  Henry.  proclamation  of  banns. 


MAM  6  MA88 

The  rite  of  the  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  is  this:  gatio),  "the  Mysteries",  and  (since  Augustine)  "the 
The  Mass  has  neither  Gloria  nor  Creed.  It  counts  as  a  Sacrament  of  the  Altar".  With  the  name  "Love- 
votive  Mass  not  for  a  grave  matter;  therefore  it  has  Feast"  (dydvii)  the  idea  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass 
tJbree  collects,  its  own,  9ie  commemoration  of  the  day,  was  not  necessarily  connected  (see  Aqape).  Etymo* 
and  the  third  which  is  the  one  chosen  for  semi-doubles  logically,  the  word  mi89a  is  neither  (as  Baronius 
at  that  time^^ef'tliFTeaPy.jmless  there  be  two  com-  states)  from  the  Hebrew  HDD  nor  from  the  Greek 
memoratioilBr  At  the  eiidB^rmliicamta  Domino  and  /i^tt,  but  is  simply  derived  from  misnOf  just  as 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John  are  said.  TK^^lour  is  white.  obkUa  is  derived  from  oblaJtio,  coUecta  from  eoUecHOf  and 
The  bridegroom  and  bride  assist  near^bhealtar  (just  uUa  from  ulHo  (Du  Cange,  "Glossar.",  s.  v.  "Missa"). 
outside  the  sanctuary),  the  man  on  the  righL  After  ,  The  reference  was  howeyer  not  to  a  Divine  "mission", 
thePaternottertheceiebrant genuflects andgo^^othe  but  simply  to  a  "dismissal"  (dimxMio),  as  was  also 
epistle  side.  Meanwhile  the  bridegroom  and  oh^e  customary  in  the  Greek  rite  (cf.  "Canon.  Apost.", 
come  up  and  kneel  before  him.  Turning  to  them  heV^^I,  xv:  dvokhaBt  4w  e/pt^in),  and  as  is  still  echoed 
says  the  two  prayers  Propitiare  Domine  and  Deus  otii  intik^hrase  Ite  missa  est.  This  solemn  form  of  leave- 
potestate  (as  m  the  Missal)  with  folded  hands.  He  takiiiff>r«s  not  introduced  by  the  Church  as  something 
then  goes  back  to  the  midme  and  continues  the  Mass.  new,  out  was  adopted  from  the  ordinary  lan^^uage  of 
The^r  go  back  to  their  places.  He  gives  them  Com-  the  day,  as  is  shown  by  Bishop  Avitus  of  Vienna  as 
munion  at  the  usual  time.  This  impues  that  thev  are  late  as  a.  d.  500  (Ep.  1  in  P.  L.,  LIX,  199):  "In 
fasting  and  explains  the  misused  name  "wedding  churches  and  in  the  emperor's  or  the  prefect's  courts, 
breakfast"  afterwards.  But  the  Communion  is  not  a  Missa  est  is  said  when  the  people  are  released  from 
strict  law  (S.  R.  C.,no.  5582,21  March,  1874).  Imme-  attendance."  In  the  sense  of  "dismissal",  or  rather 
diately  after  the  BenetlicamiM  DomtTto  and  its  answer  "close  of  prayer",  missa  is  used  in  the  celebrated 
the  celebrant  asain  goes  to  the  Epistle  side  and  the  "  Peregrinatio  Silvise"  at  least  seventy  times  (Corpus 
bridegroom  and  bride  kneel  before  him  as  before,  scriptor.  ecdes.  latinor.,  XXXVIII,  ^66  sq.),  and  the 
The  celebrant  tumii^C  to  them  says  the  prayer  Deiis  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  places  after  Hours,  Vespers,  and 
Abraham  (without  Oremits),  He  is  then  told  to  Compline,  the  regular  formula:  Etmisscefiant  (pmy era 
warn  them  "with  grave  words  to  be  faithful  to  one  an-  are  ended).  Popular  speech  gradually  apphed  the 
other".  The  rest  of  the  ad  vice  suggested  in  the  rubric  ritual  of  dismissal,  as  it  was  expressed  in  ooth  the 
of  the  Missal  is  now  generally  left  out.  He  sprinkles  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  and  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful, 
them  with  holy  water;  they  retire,  he  ^oes  back  to  the  by  svnecdoche  to  the  entire  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  the 
middle  of  the  altar,  says  Piaceat  Hbi,  gives  the  blessing  whole  being  named  after  the  part.  The  first  certain 
and  finishes  Mass  as  usual.  trace  of  such  an  application  is  found  in  Ambrose  (Ep. 

In  the  cases  in  which  the  "Missa  pro  sponso  et  xx,  4,  in  P.  L.,  XVl,  995).    We  will  use  the  word  in 

sponsa"  may  not  be  said  but  may  be  commemorated,  this  sense  in  our  consideration  of  the  Mass  in  its  (1) 

tne  special  prayers  and  blessing  are  inserted  in  the  existence,  (2)  essence,  and  (3)  causality. 
Mass  in  the  same  way.    But  the  colour  must  be  that        (1)  The  E»stenoe  of  the  Mass. — ^Before  dealing 

of  the  day.    During  the  closed  time  it  is,  of  course,  with  the  proofs  of  revelation  afiforded  by  the-Bible  and 

quite  possible  for  the  married  people  to  have  a  Mass  tradition,  certain  preliminary  points  must  first  be 

said  for  their  intention,  at  which  they  receive  Holy  decided.    Of  these  the  most  important  is  that  the 

Communion.    The  nuptial  Blessing  in  this  Mass  is  Church  intends  the  Mass  to  be  regarded  as  a  "true  and 

Quite  a  different  thing  from  the  actual  celebration  of  proper  sacrifice",  and  will  not  tolerate  the  idea  that 

the  marriage,  which  must  always  precede  it.    The  the  sacrifice  is  identical  with  Holy  Communion.   That 

blessing  is  eiven  to  people  already  married,  as  the  is  the  sense  of  a  clause  from  the  Council  of  Trent  (S»ss. 

pravers  imply.    It  need  not  be  given  (nor  tne  Mass  XXII,  can.  i):  "If  any  one  saith  that  in  the  Mass  a 

said)  by  the  priest  who  assisted  at  the  marria^.    But  true  and  proper  sacrifice  is  not  offered  to  God ;  or,  that 

both  tnese  functions  (assistance  and  blessing)  are  to  be  offered  is  nothing  else  but  that  Christ  isgiven  us 

rights  of  the  parish  priest,  which  no  one  else  may  to  eat;  let  him  be  anathema"  (Densincer,  "j£ichir.'\ 

undertake  without  delegation  from  him.    Generally  10th  ed.,  1908,  n.  948).    When  Leo  ^11  in  the  dog* 

they  are  so  combined  that  the  marriage  takes  place  matic  Bull  "ApostoliciB  Cune"  of  13  Sept.,  1896. 

immediately  before  the  Mass;  in  this  case  the  priest  based  the  invalidity  of  the  Anglican  form  of  consecra- 

may  assist  at  the  marriage  in  Mass  vestments,  but  tion  on  the  fact  amons  others,  that  in  the  consecrating 

without  the  maniple.  In  England  and  other  countries  formula  of  Edward  Vl  (that  is,  since  1549)  there  is  no- 

where  a  civil  declaration  is  required  by  law,  this  is  where  an  unambiguous  declaration  re^;araing  the  Sac- 

usually  made  in  the  sacristy  between  the  marriage  rifice  of  the  Mass,  the  Anglican  archbishops  answered 

and  the  Mass.    Canon  Law  in  England  orders  that  with  some  irritation:  "First,  we  offer  the  Sacrifice  of 

marriages  be  made  only  in  churches  that  have  a  district  praise  and  thanksgiving ;  next,  we  plead  and  represent 

with  the  cure  of  souls  (Cone.  prov.  Westm.  I,  deer,  before  the  Father  the  »Etcrifice  of  the  Cross  .  .  .  and, 

XXII,  4) .    This  implies  as  a  eeneral  rule,  but  does  not  lastly,  we  offer  the  Sacrifice  of  ourselves  to  the  Creator 

command  absolutely,  that  the  nuptial  Mass  also  be  of  all  things,  which  we  have  already  signified  by  the 

celebrated  in  such  a  church.  oblation  ofHis  creatures.  This  whole  action,  in  wliich 

See  Rubrics  of  the  Misaa  pro  mnao  et  sponaa  in  the  MtMol;  the  people  has  necessarily  to  take  part  with  the  priest , 

^l^^^niTnJlU  '22;4L,T??SS:  ^^r^t^;  we  ««,  accuatomed  to  call  the  Euclmristic  Rifice.'' 

DB  HKR2)T,<SoertiLiiurvuKi'nu;w,  III  (Louvaln,  1894),  361-^77.  In  regard  to  this  last  contention.  Bishop  Hedley  of 

Adrian  Fortebcue.  Newport  declared  his  belief  that  not  one  Anglican  in  a 

thousand  is  accustomed  to  call  the  communion  the 

Mass,  Sacrifice  OF  THE. — ^A.  The  Dogmatic  Doc-  "Eucharistic  Sacrifice".    But,  even  if  they  were  all  so 

trine  of  the  Mass, — ^The  word  Mass  (missa)  first  estab-  accustomed,  they  would  have  to  interpret  the  terms  in 

fished  itself  as  the  general  designation  for  the  Euchar-  the  sense  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  which  deny  both 

istic  Sacrifice  in  the  West  after  the  time  of  Pope  the  Real  Presence  and  the  sacrificial  power  of  tho 

Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604),  the  early  Church  having  priest,  and  thus  admit  a  sacrifice  in  an  unreal  or 

used  the  expression  the  "breaking  of  bread''  (fractio  figurative  sense  only.    Leo  XIII,  on  the  other  hand, 

Sinis)  or  "liturgy''  (Acts,  xiii,  2,  XeirovpyoOpTet);  the  in  imion  with  the  whole  Christian  past,  had  in  mind  iu 

reek  Church  has  employed  the  latter  name  for  al-  the  above-mentioned  Bull  nothing  else  than  the  Eu- 

most  sixteen  centuries.    There  were  current  in  the  charistic  "SEMsrifice  of  the  true  Body  and  Blood  of 

early  days  of  Christianity  other  terms:  "The  Lord's  Christ"  on  the  altar.    This  Sacrifice  u  certainly  not 

Supper"  (e<Bnadominica),  the  "Sacrifice"  (wpoa^pd,  identical  with  the  Anglican  form  of  celebration  (see 

obCaiio),  "the  gathering  together"  (c^hl^u,  eongrc'  Anglicanism)* 


MASS 


The  simple  fact  that  numerous  heretics,  such  as 
Wy  clif  and  Luther,  repudiated  the  Mass  as  *'  idolatry  ". 
while  retaining  the  Sacrament  of  the  true  Body  and 
Blood  of  Chnst,  proves  that  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Eucharist  is  something  essentially  different  from  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  In  truth,  the  Eucharist  per- 
forms at  once  two  fimctions:  that  of  a  sacrament  and 
that  of  a  sacrifice.  Though  the  inseparableness  of  the 
two  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the  fact  tnat  the  consecrat- 
ing and  sacrificial  powers  of  the  priesst  coincide,  and 
conaequentlv  that  the  sacrament  is  produced  only  in 
and  througn  the  Mass,  the  real  difference  between 
them  is  shown  in  that  the  sacrament  is  intended  pri- 
marily for  the  sanctification  of  the  soul,  whereas  the 
sacrifice  serves  primarily  to  glorify  God  by  adoration, 
thanksgiving,  praver,  and  expiation.  The  recipient  of 
the  one  is  God,  wno  receives  the  sacrifice  of  His  only- 
begotten  Son;  of  the  other,  man,  who  receives  the 
sacrament  for  his  own  good.  Furthermore,  the  im- 
bloody  Samfice  of  the  Eucharistic  Christ  is  in  its 
nature  a  transient  action,  while  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Altar  continues  as  something  permanent  after  the  sac- 
rifice, and  can  even  be  preserved  in  monstrance  and 
ciborium.  Finally,  this  difference  also  deserves  men- 
tion :  communion  imder  one  form  only  is  the  reception 
of  the  whole  sacrament,  whereas,  without  the  use  of 
the  two  forms  of  bread  and  wine  (the  symbolic  separa- 
tion of  the  Bodv  and  Blood),  the  mystical  slaying  of 
the  Victim,  and  therefore  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
does  not  take  place. 

The  definition  of  the  Council  of  Trent  supposes  as 
self-evident  the  proposition  that,  along  with  the  "true 
and  real  Sacrifice  ofthe  Blass",  there  can  be  and  are  in 
Christendom  figurative  and  unreal  sacrifices  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  prayers  of  praise  and  thanksgiving, 
alms,  mortification,  obedience,  and  works  of  penance. 
Such  offerings  are  often  referred  to  in  Holv  Scripture, 
e.  g.  in  Ecclus.,  xxxv,  4:  ''And  he  that  doth  mercy, 
offered  sacrifice '' ;  and  in  Ps.  cxl,  2:  "  Let  my  prayer 
be  directed  as  incense  in  th^  sight;  the  lifting  up  of 
Doy  hands  as  evening  sacrifice."     These  figurative 
offerings,  however,  necessarily  presuppose  the  real  and 
true  offering,  just  as  a  picture  presupposes  its  subject 
and  a  portrait  its  original.   The  Biblical  metaphors — a 
"sacrifice  of  jubilation"  (Ps.  zxvi,  6),  the  "calves  of 
our  Ups"  (Osee,  ziv,  3),  the  " sacrifice  of  praise"  (Heb., 
ziii,  15>— -expressions  which  apply  sacrificial  terms  to 
simple  prayer — ^would  be  without  application  or  mean- 
ing if  there  were  not,  or  there  had  not  been,  a  true  and 
real  sacrifice  O^ostia,  Owrta).    That  there  was  such  a 
sacrifice,  ibid  whole  sacrificial  system  of  the  Old  Law 
bears  witness.    It  is  true  that  we  may  and  must  rccog-  <. 
niae.  with  St.  Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  bcxxv,  a.  3,  ad  2um), , 
as  the  principale  sacrificium  the  sacrificial  intent 
which,  embodied  in  the  spirit  of  prayer,  inspires  and 
animates  the  external  offering  as  the  |x)dy  animates 
the  soul,  and  without  which  even  the  most  perfect 
offering  has  neither  worth  nor  effect  before  God. 
Hence,  the  holy  psalmist  says:  *'  For  if  thou  hadst  de- 
sired sacrifice,  I  would  indeed  have  given  it:  with  burnt- 
offerings  thou  wilt  not  be  delighted.    A  sacrifice  to 
God  is  an  afflicted  spirit"  (Ps.  1,  18  sq.).    This  indis- 
pensable re<)uirement  of  an  internal  sacrifice,  however, 
by  no  means  makes  the  external  sacrifice  superfluous 
in  Christianity;  indeed,  without  a  perpetual  oblation 
deriving  its  value  from  the  sacrifice  once  offered  on  the 
CrossTChristianity,  the  perfect  religion,  would  be  in- 
ferior not  only  to  the  Old  Testcmient,  but  even  to  the 
poorest  form  of  natural  religion.   Since  sacrifice  is  thus 
essential  to  reli^on,  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  for 
Christianity,  which  cannot  otherwise  fulfil  its  duty  of 
showing  outward  honour  to  God  in  the  most  perfect 
way.    Thus,  the  Church,  as  the  mystical  Christ,  de- 
sires and  must  have  her  own  permanent  sacrifice, 
which  vuxeW  cannot  be  either  an  independent  addition 
to  that  of  Grolgotha  or  its  intrinsic  complement;  it  can 
only  be  the  one  s^lf-saine  saorifioe  of  toe  Cross,  whose 


fruits,  by  an  unbloody  offering,  are  daily  made  avail- 
able for  believers  and  imbeuevers  and  sacrificially 
applied  to  them. 

If  the  Mass  is  to  be  a  true  sacrifice  in  the  literal 
sense^  it  must  realize  the  philosophical  conception  of 
sacrifice.    Thus  the  last  preliminary  question  arises: 
What  is  a  sacrifice  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term? 
Without  attempting  to  state  and  establish  a  compre- 
hensive theory  of  sacrifice  (q.  v.^,  it  will  suffice  to  show 
that,  according  to  the  comparative  history  of  religions, 
four  things  are  necessary  to  a  sacrifice:  a  sacnfidal 
gift  (rea  oblata)^  a  sacrificing  minister  {minister  UgiH^ 
mu9)f  a  sacrificial  action  {cbctio  sacrifica),  and  a  sacri- 
ficial end  or  object  (finis  sacrificit).    In  contrast  with 
sacrifices  in  the  figurative  or  less  proper  sense,  the 
sacrificial  gift  must  exist  in  physical  substance,  and 
must  be  really  or  virtually  destroyed  (animals  slain, 
libations  poured  out,  other  things  rendered  unfit  for 
ordinary  uses),  or  at  least  really  transformed,  at  a 
fixed  place  of  sacrifice  (ara,  altare),  and  offered  up  to 
God.    As  regards  the  person  offering,  it  is  not  permit- 
ted that  any  and  eveiy  individual  should  offer  sacrifioe 
on  his  own  account.    In  the  revealed  religion,  as  in 
nearly  all  heathen  religions,  only  a  qualified  person 
(usuallv  called  Driest,  sacerdos,  le/>ctft),  who  has  been 
given  the  power  by  commission  or  vocation^  may  offer 
up  sacrifice  in  the  name  of  the  commumty.    After 
Moses,  the  priests  authorized  by  law  in  the  Old  Tester 
ment  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  more  espe- 
cially to  the  house  of  Aaron  (Heb.,  v,  4).    But,  since 
Christ  Himself  received  and  exercised  His  hig^  priest- 
hood, not  by  the  arrog^tion  of  authority  but  in  virtue 
of  a  Divine  call,  there  is  still  greater  need  that  priests 
who  represent  Him  should  receive  power  and  author- 
ity through  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  orders  to  offer  up 
the  sublime  Sacrifice  of  the  New  Law.     Sacrifioe 
reaches  its  outward  culmination  in  the  sacrificial  act, 
in  which  we  have  to  distinguish  between  the  proid- 
mate  matter  and  the  real  form.   The  form  lies,  not  in 
the  real  transformation  or  complete  destruction  of  the 
sacrificial  gift,  but  rather  in  its  sacrificial  oblation,  in 
whatever  way  it  may  be  transformed.    Even  where  a 
real  destruction  took  place,  as  in  the  sacrificial  slay- 
ings  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  act  of  destroying  was 
performed  by  the  servants  of  the  Temple,  whereas  the 
proper  oblation^  consisting  in  the  "spilling  of  blood " 
(aspersio  sanguinis) ,  was  the  exclusive  function  of  Uie 

griests.  Thus,  the  real  form  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
ross  consistea  neither  in  the  killing  of  Christ  by  the 
Roman  soldiers  nor  in  an  imaginary  self-destruction 
on  the  part  of  Jesus,  but  in  His  voluntaxj  surrender  of 
His  blood  shed  by  another's  hand,  and  m  His  offering 
of  His  life  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  Consequently,  the 
destruction  or  transformation  constitutes  at  most  the 
proximate  matter;  the  sacrificial  oblation,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  the  physical  form  of  the  sacrifioe. 
Finally,  the  object  of  the  sacrifioe,  as  significant  of  its 
meaning,  lifts  the  external  offering  beyond  any  mere 
mechamcal  action  into  the  sphere  of  the  spiritual  and 
Divine.  The  object  is  the  soul  of  the  sacrifice,  and,  in 
a  certain  sense,  its  "  metaphysicial  form  ".  In  all  reli- 
gions we  £nd,  as  the  essential  idea  of  sacrifice^  a  com- 
Slete  surrender  to  God  for  the  purpose  of  umon  with 
[im;  and  to  this  idea  there  is  added,  on  the  part  of 
those  who  are  in  sin,  the  desire  for  pardon  and  reoon- 
dilation.  Hence  at  once  arises  the  (ustinction  between 
sacrifioes  of  praise  and  expiation  (sacrificium  kUreuH- 
cum  et  propiUatorium)f  and  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving 
and  petition  (sacrificium  eucharisHcum  et  impetrato- 
rtum);  hence  also  the  obvious  inference  that,  under 
pain  of  idolatry,  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered  to  God  alone 
as  the  beginning  and  end  of  all  things.  Rightly  does 
St.  Augustine  remark  (De  civit.  Dei,  X,  iv):  "Who 
ever  thoui^t  of  offering  sacrifice  except  to  one  whom 
he  either  knew,  or  thought,  or  imagined  to  be  God?" 
If  then  we  combine  the  four  constituent  ideas  in  a 
definition,  we  may  say : "  Sacrifioe  is  the  external  obbh 


BIA88 


8 


MASS 


lion  to  God  by  an  authorized  minister  of  a  sense- 
peroeptible  object,  either  through  its  destruction  or  at 
least  through  its  real  transformation,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  God's  supreme  dominion  and  for  the  appeas- 
ing of  His  wrath.  We  shall  demonstrate  the  applica- 
bility of  this  definition  to  the  Mass  in  the  section 
devoted  to  the  nature  of  the  sacrifice,  after  settling  the 
question  of  its  existence. 

(a)  Scriptural  Proof. — ^It  is  a  notable  fact  that  the 
Divine  institution  of  the  Mass  can  be  established,  one 
might  almost  say,  with  greater  certainty  by  means  of 
the  Old  Testament  than  by  means  of  the  ^few. 

(1)  The  Old  Testament  prophecies  are  recorded 
partly  in  types,  partly  in  woras.  Following  the  prece- 
dent of  many  Fathers  of  the  Church  (see  Bellarmine, 
"De  Euchar.",  v,  6),  the  Council  of  Trent  especially 
(Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i)  laid  stress  on  the  prophetical  rela^ 
tion  that  imdoubtedly  exists  between  the  offering  of 
bread  and  wine  by  Melchisedech  and  the  Last  Supper 
of  Jesus.  The  occurrence  was  briefly  as  follows:  Alter 
Abraham  (then  still  called  '*  Abram '')  with  his  armed 
men  had  rescued  his  nephew  Lot  from  the  four  hostile 
kings  who  had  fallen  on  him  and  robbed  him,  Mel- 
chisedech, King  of  Salem  (Jerusalem), "  bringing  forth 
\vroferenSj  Heb.  K^y^n,  Hiphil  of  t<y]  bread  and  wine, 
for  he  was  a  priest  of  the  Most  ELigh  God,  blessed  him 
[Abraham]  and  said:  Blessed  be  Abram  by  the  Most 
High  God  .  .  .  And  he  [Abraham]  gave  him  the  tithes 
of  all "  (Gen.,  xiv,  18-20).  Catholic  theologians  (with 
very  few  exceptions)  have  from  the  beginmng  rightlv 
emphasized  the  circumstance  that  Melchisedech 
brought  out  bread  and  wine,  not  merely  to  provide 
refreshment  for  Abram's  followers  weaned  after  the 
battle,  for  they  were  well  supplied  with  provisions  out 
of  the  booty  they  had  taken  (Gen.,  xiv,  11, 16),  but  to 
present  bread  and  wine  as  f ood-onerings  to  Almightv 
God.  Not  as  a  host,  but  as  "priest  of  the  Most  Sign 
God  ",  he  brought  forth  bread  and  wine,  blessed  Abra- 
ham, and  received  the  tithes  from  him.  In  fact,  the 
very  reason  for  his  "  bringing  forth  bread  and  wine  "  is 
expressly  stated  to  have  been  his  priesthood:  "for  he 
was  a  priest".  Hence,  yroferre  must  necessarily  be- 
come offerref  even  if  it  were  true  that  XIP  in  Hiphil  is 
not  an  hieratic  sacrificial  term;  but  even  this  is  not 
quite  certain  (cf.  Judges,  vi,  18  sq.).  Accordingly. 
Melchisedech  made  a  real  food-offering  of  bread  ana 
wine.  Now  it  is  the  express  teaching  of  Scripture  that 
Christ  is  "  a  priest  for  ever  according  to  the  order  [Kari^ 
T^w  rd^iv]  of  Alelchisedech ''  (Ps.  cix,  4;  Heb.,  v.  5  sq.; 
vii,  1  sqq.).    Christ,  however,  in  no  way  resembled  ms 

Eriestly  prototype  in  His  bloody  sacrifice  on  the  Cross, 
ut  only  and  solely  at  His  Last  Supper.  On  that  occa- 
sion He  likewise  made  an  unbloody  food-offexing,  only 
that,  as  Antitype,  He  accomplished  something  more 
than  a  mere  oDiation  of  bread  and  wine,  namely  the 
sacrifice  of  His  Body  and  Blood  imder  the  mere  forms 
of  bread  and  wine.  Otherwise,  the  shadows  cast  be- 
fore by  the  "  good  things  to  come "  would  have  been 
more  perfect  than  the  things  themselves,  and  the  anti- 
type at  any  rate  no  richer  in  reality  than  the  type. 
Since  the  Mass  is  nothing  else  than  a  continual  repeti- 
tion, commanded  by  C&ist  Himself,  of  the  Sacrifice 
accomplished  at  the  Last  Supper,  it  follows  that  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  partakes  of  the  New  Testament 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  of  Melchisedech.  (Concern- 
ing the  Paschal  Lamb  as  the  second  type,  of  the  Mass, 
see  Bellarmine,  "De  Euchar.**  V,  vu*  cf.  also  von 
Cichowski,  "  Das  altestamentl.  rascha  m  seinem  Ver- 
haltnis  zum  Opfer  Christi",  Munich^  1849.) 

Passing  over  the  more  or  less  distmct  references  to 
the  Mass  in  other  prophets  (Ps.  xxi,  27  sqq.;  Is.,  Ixvi, 
18  sqq.),  the  best  and  clearest  prediction  concerning 
the  Mass  is  undoubtedly  that  of  Malachias,  who  makes 
a  threatening  announcement  to  the  Levite  priests  in 
the  name  of  God:  "  I  have  no  pleasure  in  you,  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts:  and  I  will  not  receive  a  gift  of  your 
hand.  For  from  the  rising  of  the  sun  even  to  the  going 


down,  my  name  is  great  among  the  Gentiles  [D^, 
heathens,  non-Jews],  and  in  every  place  there  is  sacri- 
fice, and  there  is  offered  to  my  name  a  clean  oblation: 
for  my  name  is  great  amohg  the  Gentiles^  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts''  (Mai.,  i,  10-11).  Accordmg  to  the 
unanimous  interpretation  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
fsee  Petavius,  "De  incam.",  xii,  12),  the  prophet  here 
foretells  the  everlasting  Sacrifice  of  the  New  dispensa- 
tion. For  he  declares  that  these  two  things  will  cer- 
tainly come  to  pass:  (1}  The  abolition  of  aU  Levitical 
sacrifices,  and  (2)  the  institution  of  an  entirely  new 
sacrifice.  As  God 's  determination  to  do  away  with  the 
sacrifices  of  the  Levites  is  adhered  to  consistently 
throughout  the  denunciation,  the  essential  thing  is  to 
specify  correctly  the  sort  of  sacrifice  that  is  promised 
in  their  stead .  In  regard  to  this,  the  following  proposi- 
tions have  to  be  established :  ii)  that  the  new  sacrifice 
is  to  come  about  in  the  days  of  the  Messiah ;  (2)  that  it 
is  to  be  a  true  and  real  sacrifice,  and  (3)  that  it  does  not 
coincide  formally  with  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  the  sacrifice  referred  to  by 
Malachias  did  not  signify  a  sacrifice  of  his  time,  but 
was  rather  to  be  a  future  sacrifice  belonging  to  the  age 
of  the  Messiah.  For  though  the  Hebrew  participles  of 
the  original  can  be  translated  by  the  present  tense 
(there  is  sacrifice;  it  is  offered),  tne  mere  universality 
of  the  new  sacrifice — "from  the  rising  to  the  set- 
ting ",  "  in  every  place  ",  even  "  among  the  Gentiles  ", 
i.  e.  heathen  (non-Jewish)  peoples — is  irrefragable 
proof  that  theprophet  beheld  as  present  an  event  of 
the  future.  Wherever  Jahwe  speaks,  as  in  this  case, 
of  His  glorification  by  the  "  heathen  ",  He  can,  accord- 
ing to  Old  Testament  teaching  (Ps.  xxi,  28;  Ixxi,  10 
sqq. :  Is.,  xi,  9;  xlix,  6:  Ix,  9;  Ixvi,  18 sqq.;  Amos,  ix, 
12;  Mich.,  iv,  2,  etc.),  nave  in  mind  only  the  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah  or  the  future  Church  of  Christ;  ever>' 
other  explanation  is  shattered  by  the  text.  Least  of 
all  could  a  new  sacrifice  in  the  time  of  the  prophet 
himself  be  thought  of.  Nor  could  there  be  any  idea  of 
a  sacrifice  among  the  genuine  heathens,  as  Hitzi^  has 
suggested,  for  the  sacnfices  of  the  heathen,  associative! 
with  idolatry  and  impurity,  are  unclean  and  displeas- 
ing to  God  (I  Cor.,  X,  20).  Again,  it  could  not  be  a 
sacrifice  of  the  dispersed  Jews  {Diaspora) ;  for  apart 
from  the  fact  that  the  existence  of  such  sacrifices  in 
the  Diaspora  is  rather  problematic,  they  were  cer- 
tainly not  offered  the  world  over,  nor  did  they  possess 
the  unusual  significance  attaching  to  special  modes  of 
honouring  God.  Consequently,  the  reference  is  un- 
doubtedly to  some  entirely  distinctive  sacrifice  of  the 
future.  But  of  what  future?  Was  it  to  be  a  future 
sacrifice  among  genuine  heathens,  such  as  the  C)M 
Mexicans  or  the  Congo  negroes?  This  is  as  impossii>le 
as  in  the  case  of  other  heathen  forms  of  idolatry.  Per- 
haps then  it  was  to  be  a  new  and  more  perfect  sacrifice 
among  the  Jews?  This  also  is  out  of  the  question,  for 
since  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (a.  d.  70), 
the  whole  system  of  Jewish  sacrifice  is  irrevocably  a 
thing  of  the  past;  and  the  new  sacrifice,  moreover,  is 
to  be  performed  by  a  priesthood  of  an  origin  other  thtiii 
Jewisn  (Is.,  Ixvi,  21).  Everything,  therefore,  points  to 
Christianity,  in  which,  as  a  matttcr  of  fact,  the  Mes- 
siah rules  over  non-Jewish  peoples. 

The  second  question  now  presents  itself:  Is  the 
universal  sacrifice  thus  promised  "in  every  place"  to 
be  only  a  purely  spiritual  offering  of  prayer,  in  other 
words  a  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  such  as 
Protestantism  is  content  with;  or  is  it  to  oe  a  true 
sacrifice  in  the  strict  sense,  as  the  Catholic  Chureh 
maintains?  It  is  forthwith  clear  that  abolition  and 
substitution  must  correspond,  and  accordingly  tliat 
the  old  real  sacrifice  cannot  be  displaced  by  a  i:ew 
unreal  sacrifice.  Moreover,  prayer,  adoration,  thanks- 
giving, etc.,  are  far  from  being  a  new  offering,  for  tliey 
are  permanent  realities  common  to  every  age,  and 
constitute  the  indispensable  foundation  of  every  reli- 
gion whether  before  or  after  the  Messiah.    The  last 


9 


MASS 


doubt  is  dispelled  by  the  Hebrew  text,  which  has  no 
fewer  than  three  classic  sacerdotal  declarations  refer- 
ring to  the  promised  sacrifice,  thus  desi^edly  doin^ 
away  with  the  possibility  of  interpreting  it  metaphon- 
cally.  Especially  important  is  the  substantive  nn^. 
Although  m  its  origin  the  generic  term  for  every  sacri- 
fice, the  bloody  included  (cf.  Gen.,  iv,  4  sq.;  I  Kings, 
ii,  17),  it  was  not  only  never  used  to  indicate  an  unreal 
sacrifice  (such  as  a  prayer  offering),  but  even  became 
the  technical  term  for  an  unblocSy  sacrifice  (mostly 
food  offerings),  in  contradistinction  to  the  bloody 
sacrifice  which  is  given  the  name  of  nSTy  Sebach  (see 
Knabenbauer,  "Cbmmentar.  in  Prophet,  minor.",  II, 
Paris,  1886,  pp.  430  sqq.). 

As  to  the  third  and  last  proposition,  no  len^y 
demonstration  is  needed  to  show  that  the  sacrifice 
of  Malachias  cannot  be  formally  identified  with  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Ooss.  This  interpretation  is  at  once 
contradicted  by  the  Minchah,  i.  e.  unbloodv  (food) 
offering.  Then,  there  are  other  cogent  considerations 
based  on  fact.  Though  a  real  sacrifice,  belonging  to 
the  time  of  the  Messitm  and  the  most  powerful  means 
conceivable  for  glorifvins  the  Divine  name,  the  Sacri- 
fice of  the  Cross,  so  far  from  being  offered  "in  every 
place''  and  among  non-Jewish  peoples,  was  confined 
to  Golgotha  and  the  midst  of  the  Jewish  people.  Nor 
can  the  Sacrifice  of  the  C!ross,  which  was  accomplished 
by  the  Saviour  in  person  wiliiout  the  help  of  a  human 
representative  priesthood,  be  identified  with  that  sac- 
rifice for  the  offering  of  which  the  Messiah  makes  use 
of  priests  after  the  manner  of  the  Levites,  in  every 

&lace  and  at  all  times.  Furthermore,  he  wilfully  shuts 
is  eyes  against  the  light,  who  denies  that  the  proph- 
ecy of  Ifalachias  is  f ulmled  to  the  letter  in  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  Blass.  In  it  are  united  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  promised  sacrifice:  its  unbloodjr  sacrificial  rite  as 
genuine  Minchah,  its  universality  m  regard  to  place 
and  time,  its  extension  to  non-Jewish  peoples,  its  dele- 
gated priesthood  differing  from  that  of  the  Jews,  its 
essential  unity  by  reason  of  the  identity  of  the  C^ef 
Priest  and  the  victim  (CJhrist),  and  its  intrinsic  and 
essential  purity  which  no  Levitical  or  moral  undeanli- 
neas  can  defile.  Little  wonder  that  the  Council  of 
Trent  should  say  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i):  "This  is  that 
pure  oblation,  which  cannot  be  defiled  by  unworthi- 
ness  and  impiety  on  the  part  of  those  who  offer  it,  and 
concerning  which  God  has  predicted  through  Mala- 
chias, that  there  would  be  offered  up  a  clean  oblation 
in  every  place  to  His  Name,  which  would  be  great 
among  the  Gentiles"  (see  Denzinger,  n.  939). 

(il)  Passing  now  to  the  proofs  contained  in  the  New 
Testament,  we  may  begin  hy  remarking  that  many 
dogmatic  writers  see  in  the  dialogue  of  Jesus  with  the 
Samaritan  woman  at  Jacob's  well  a  prophetic  refer- 
ence to  the  Mass  (John,  iv,  21  sqq.) :  *' Woman,  believe 
me,  that  the  hour  cometh,  when  you  shall  neither  on 
this  mountain  [Ganzim]  nor  in  Jerusalem,  adore  the 
Father.  .  .  •  But  the  hour  cometh,  and  now  is,  when 
the  true  adorers  shall  adore  the  Father  in  spirit  and  in 
truth."  Since  the  point  at  issue  between  the  Samari- 
tans and  the  Jews  related,  not  to  the  ordinazy,  private 
offering  of  prayer  practised  everywhere,  but  to  the 
solemn,  public  worship  embodied  in  a  real  sacrifice, 
Jesus  really  seems  to  refer  to  a  future  real  sacrifice  of 
praise,  which  would  not  be  confined  in  its  llturgv  to 
the  city  of  Jerusalem  but  would  captivate  the  whole 
world  (see  Bellarmine,  ''De  Euchs^.",  v,  11).  Not 
without  ^ood  reason  do  most  commentators  appeal  to 
Heb.,  xiii,  10:  "  We  have  an  altar  [6v<rMurr^/>coy,  altare], 
whereof  they  have  no  power  to  eat  [♦a7«J^,  edere]  who 
serve  the  tabernacle.  Since  St.  raul  has  just  con- 
trasted the  Jewish  food  offering  (ftpd/uiaiWf  escia)  and 
the  Christian  attar  food,  the  partaking  of  which  was 
denied  to  the  Jews,  the  inference  is  obvious:  where 
there  is  an  altar,  there  is  a  sacrifice.  But  the  Eucluu^ 
ist  is  the  food  which  the  Christians  alone  are  permitted 
to  eat:  therefore  there  is  a  Eucharistic  sacrmoe.  The 


objection  that,  in  Apostolic  times,  the  term  dUar  was 
not  yet  used  in  the  sense  of  the  "Lord's  table"  (cf. 
I  Cor.,  X,  21)  is  clearly  a  begging  of  the  question,  since 
Paul  might  well  have  been  the  first  to  introduce  the 
name,  it  oeing  adopted  from  him  by  later  writers  (e.  g 
Ignatius  of  Antiocn,  died  a.  d.  107). 

It  can  scarcelv  be  denied  that  the  entirely  mystical 
explanation  of  the  *'  spiritual  food  from  the  altar  of  the 
cross",  favoured  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Estius,  and 
Stentrup,  is  far-fetched  (cf .  Thalhofer, "  Das  Opfer  des 
A.  und  N.  Bundes  ",  Ratisbon,  1870,  pp.  233  sqq.) .  It 
might  on  the  other  hand  appear  still  more  strange  that 
in  the  passage  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  where 
Christ  and  Melchisedech  are  compared,  the  two  food 
offerings  should  be  not  only  not  placed  in  prophetical 
relation  with  each  other,  but  not  even  mentioned. 
The  reason,  however,  is  not  far  to  seek:  such  a  parallel 
lay  entirely  outside  the  scope  of  the  argument.  All 
that  St.  Paul  desired  to  show  was  that  the  high  priest- 
hood of  Christ  was  superior  to  the  Levitical  priesthood 
of  the  Old  Testament  (cf.  Heb.,  vii,  4  sqq.),  and  this  he 
fully  demonstrated  by  proving  that  Aaron  and  his 

Sriesthood  stood  far  below  the  unattainable  height  of 
[elchisedech.  So  much  the  more,  therefore,  must 
Christ  as  "priest  according  to  the  order  of  Melchise- 
dech" excel  the  Levitical  priesthood.  The  peculiar 
dignity  of  Melchisedech,  however,  was  manifested  not 
through  the  fact  that  he  made  a  food  offering  of  bread 
and  wine,  a  thing  which  the  Levites  also  were  able  to 
do,  but  chiefly  through  the  fact  that  he  blessed  the 
great  *'  Father  Abraham  and  received  the  tithes  from 
him".  (For  the  proofs  relating  to  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  m  I  Cor.,  x,  16-21,  see  Al.  Sch&fer,  "Erklilrung 
der  beiden  Briefe  an  die  Korinther",  MUnster,  1903, 
pp.  195  s<)q.) 

The  mam  testimony  of  the  New  Testament  lies  in  the 
account  of  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  and  most 
clearly  in  the  words  of  consecration  spoken  over  the 
chalice.  For  this  reason  we  shall  consider  these  words 
first,  since  thereby,  owing  to  the  analogy  between  the 
two  formulae,  clearer  light  will  be  thrown  on  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words  of  consecration  pronounced  over  the 
bread.  For  the  sake  of  clearness  and  easy  comparison 
we  subjoin  the  four  passages  in  Greek  and  English: 

(1)  Matt.,  xxvi,  28:  ToOro  ydp  i^rip  rb  atfiii  ftov  t6  tt^s 
[jmci^f]  diaB^iPifs  rb  wtpl  woWQy  iicxvinfbfiepop  §ls  d^wip 
iftapriQp. 

For  this  is  my  blood  of  the  new  testament,  which 
shall  be  shed  for  many  unto  remission  of  sins. 

(2)  Mark,  xiv,  24:  ToOrb  i^rip  rb  aXftd  fuu  r^t  xaiy^ 
SiaS^mit  rb  (hrip  voXK^w  iicxvpybfuvov. 

This  is  my  blood  of  the  new  testament,  which  shall 
be  shed  for  man^. 

(3^  Luke,  xxii,  20:  Tovro  rb  voriipiow  ^  kcuj^  HiaSifini 
iw  rtp  atftarl  ftov^  rb  ihr^/>  it/iiap  iicxvpvbfjbepop. 

This  is  the  chalice,  the  new  testament  in  my  blood, 
which  shall  be  shed  for  you. 

(4)  I  Cor.,  xi,  25:  ToOro  rb  wor'^pwp  if  xaipif  dtaOi/jicTi 
iirrlp  iv  T$  ifup  at/uLTi, 

This  chalice  is  the  new  testament  in  my  blood. 

The  Divine  institution  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar  is 
proved  by  showing  (1)  that  the  "shedding  of  blood" 
spoken  of  in  the  text  took  place  there  and  then  and 
not  for  the  first  time  on  the  cross;  (2)  that  it  was  a 
true  and  real  sacrifice;  (3)  that  it  was  considered  a 
permanent  institution  in  the  Church.*  The  present 
form  of  the  participle  iKxvvp6f/£pop  in  conjunction  with 
the  present  icrlp  establishes  the  first  point.  For  it  is  a 
grammatical  rule  of  New  Testament  Greek,  that,  when 
the  double  present  is  used  (that  is,  in  both  the  parti- 
ciple and  the  finite  verb,  as  is  the  case  here),  the  time 
denoted  is  not  the  distant  or  near  future,  but  strictly  the 
present  (see  Fr.  Blass,  "Grammatik  des  N.  T.  Griech- 
isch",  p.  193,  Gottingen,  1896).  This  rule  does  not 
apply  to  other  constructions  of  the  present  tense,  as 
when  Christ  says  earlier  (John,  xiv,  12):  "I go  (iropc^ 
o/uu)  to  the  father".    Alleged  exceptions  to  the  rule 


MAM 


10 


are  not  such  in  reality,  as,  for  instance,  Matt.,  vi,  30: 
"  And  if  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  is  to-day  and  to- 
morrow is  CMt  into  the  oven  (ftaWifuvow)  God  doth 
so  clothe  (ifi^4ywvatw) :  how  much  more  you,  O  ye  of 
little  faith?''  For  in  this  passage  it  is  a  question  not 
of  something  in  the  future  out  of  something  occurnne 
every  day.  For  other  examples  see  Chr.  Pesch,  "  PrjeL 
domn.",  VI,  396  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908).  When  the 
Vulgate  truis]ate«  the  Greek  participles  by  the  future 
(efifundetur,  fundetur),  it  is  not  at  variance  with  facts, 
considering  that  the  mystical  shedding  of  blood  in  the 
chalice,  if  it  were  not  brought  into  intimate  relation 
with  the  physical  shedding  of  blood  on  the  cross, 
would  be  unpossible  and  meaningless;  for  the  one  is 
the  essential  presupposition  and  foundation  of  the 
other.  Still,  from  the  standpoint  of  philology,  effun- 
ditur  (f  unditur)  oueht  to  be  translated  into  the  strictly 
present,  as  is  really  done  in  many  ancient  codices. 
The  accuracy  of  this  exegesis  is  finally  attested  in  a 
striking  way  by  the  Greek  wording  in  St.  Luke:  r6 
T9T^ptop  ...  itcxvvp^fupoy.  Here  the  shedding  of  blood 
appears  as  'taking  place  directly  in  the  chalice,  and 
therefore  in  the  present.  Oversealous  critics,  it  is 
true,  have  assumed  that  there  is  here  a  grammatical 
mistake,  in  that  St.  Luke  erroneously  connects  the 
''shedding"  witii  the  chalice  (vor^/xor),  instead  of 
with  "blood"  (r$  atfMTi)  which  is  in  the  dative. 
Rather  than  correct  this  highly  cultivated  Greek,  as 
though  he  were  a  school  boy,  we  prefer  to  assume  that 
he  intended  to  use  synecdoche,  a  figure  of  speech 
known  to  everybody,  and  therefore  put  the  vessel  to 
indicate  its  oontente  (Winer-Moulton.  ''Grammar  of 
New  Testament  Greek",  p.  791,  Edinburgh,  1882). 

As  to  the  establishment  of  our  second  proposition, 
believing  Protestants  and  Anglicans  readily  admit 
that  the  phrase:  "to  shed  one's  blood  for  others  unto 
the  remission  of  sins"  is  not  only  genuinely  Biblical 
languaffe  relating  to  sacrifice,  but  also  designates  in 
particular  the  sacrifice  of  expiation  (cf.  Lev.,  vii,  14; 
xiv,  17;  xvii.  11;  Rom.,  iii,  25,  v,  9;  Heb.,  ix,  10, 
etc.).  They,  nowever,  refer  this  sacrifice  of  expiation, 
not  to  what  took  place  at  the  Last  Supper,  but  to  the 
Crucifixion  tiie  dav  after.  From  the  demonstration 
given  above  that  Christ,  by  the  double  consecration  of 
bread  and  vrine,  mystically  separated  His  Blood  from 
His  Body  and  thus  in  the  chahce  itself  poured  out  this 
Blood  in  a  sacramental  way,  it  is  at  once  clear  that  he 
wished  to  solemnise  the  jJast  Supper  not  as  a  sacra- 
ment merely  but  also  as  s^lSucharistic  sacrifice.  If  the 
"  pouring  out  of  the  chalice  "  is  to  mean  nothing  more 
than  the  sacramental  drinking  of  the  Blood,  the  result 
is  an  intolerable  tautology:  '"Drink  ye  all  of  this,  for 
this  is  my  Blood,  which  is  being  drunk".  As,  how- 
ever, it  really  reads:  "Drink  ye  all  of  this,  for  this  is 
my  blood,  which  is  shed  for  many  (you)  unto  remis- 
sion of  sins,"  the  double  character  of  the  rite,  as 
sacrament  and  sacrifice,  is  evident.  The  sacrament  is 
shown  forth  in  the  "drinkine",  the  sacrifice  in  the 
"shedding  of  blood".  "The  olood  of  the  new  testa- 
ment ",  moreover,  of  which  all  the  four  passages  speak, 
has  its  exact  parallel  in  the  analogous  institution  of 
the  Old  Testament  through  Moses.  For  by  Divine 
command  he  sprinkled  the  people  with  the  true  blood 
of  an  animal  and  added,  as  Christ  did,  the  words  of 
institution  (Ex.,  xxiv,  8):  "This  is  the  blood  of  the 
covenant  (Sept.:  ISod  rb  alfaa  rift  dte^mis)  which  the 
Lord  hath  made  with  you".  St.  Paul,  however  (Heb.,  ix, 
18  sq.),  after  repeating  this  passage,  solemnly  demon- 
strates (ibid.,  ix,  11  so  J  the  institution  of  the  New  Law 
through  the  blood  sned  by  Christ  at  the  crucifixion; 
and  the  Saviour  Himself,  with  eoual  solemnity,  sa3r8  of 
the  chalice:  "This  is  My  Blood  ot  the  new  testament ". 
It  follows  therefore  that  Christ  had  intended  His  true 
Blood  in  the  chalice  not  only  to  be  imparted  as  a  sacra- 
ment, but  to  be  also  a  sacrifice  for  the  remission  of 
sins.  With  the  last  remark  our  third  statement,  viz. 
as  to  the  permanency  of  the  institution  in  the  Church, 


is  also  established.  For  the  duration  of  the  Eucfaar- 
istic  Sacrifice  is  indissolubly  bound  up  with  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sacrament.  Christ's  last  supper  thus  takes 
on  the  significance  of  a  Divine  institution  whereby  the 
Mass  is  established  in  His  Church.  St.  Paul  (I  Cor., 
xi,  25),  in  fact,  puts  into  the  mouth  of  the  Saviour  the 
words:  "This  do  ye,  as  often  as  you  shall  drink,  for 
the  commemoration  of  me." 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  appreciate  in  their 
deeper  sense  Christ's  words  of  consecration  over  the 
bread.  Since  only  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul  have  made 
additions  to  the  sentence,  "This  is  My  Body",  it  is 
only  on  them  that  we  can  base  our  demonstration. 

(1)  Luke,  xxii,  19:  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  quod  pro 
vobis  datur;  Tovr6  4ari  rft  vQfjui  ftov  r6  inrk^  0/mp 
SMfuPoy;   This  is  nw  body  which  is  given  for  you. 

(2)  I  Cor.,  xi,  24:  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  quod  pro 
vobis  tradetur^  to0t6  funi  ivrt  t6  vQita  rb  Mp  ifuiv 
[xXtifuPoy];  This  is  my  body  which  shall  be  broken 
for  you.  Once  more,  we  maintain  that  the  sacrificial 
"giving  of  the  body"  (in  organic  unity  of  course  with 
the  "pouring  of  blood"  in  the  chalice)  is  here  to  be 
interpreted  as  a  present  sacrifice  and  as  a  permanent 
institution  in  the  Church.  Regmxiing  the  decisive 
point,  i.  e.  indication  of  what  is  actually  taking  place, 
it  is  again  St.  Luke  who  speaks  with  greatest  cl^rness, 
for  to  ffufta  he  adds  the  present  participle,  M6fuwop^ 
by  which  he  describes  the  "giving  of  tne  body"  as 
something  happening  in  the  present,  here  and  now, 
not  as  something  to  oe  done  in  the  near  future. 

The  reading  jrXi&/ici>or  in  St.  Paul  is  disputed.  Ac- 
cording to  the  best  critical  reading  (Tischendorf .  Lach- 
mann)  the  participle  is  dropped  altogether,  so  that  St. 
Paul  probably  wrote:  t6  vQ/ul  rb  6«-^/>  ^/utw  (the  body 
for  you,  i.  e .  for  your  sal  vation) .  There  ia  good  reason, 
however,  for  regarding  the  word  K)nift£Pop  (from  tcK&p, 
to  break)  as  Pauline,  since  St.  Paul  shortly  before 
spoke  of  the  "  breaking  of  bread "  (I  Cor.,  x,  16),  which 
for  him  meant  "to  offer  as  food  the  true  body  of 
Christ".  From  this  however  we  may  conclude  that 
the  "  breaking  of  the  body  "  not  only  confines  Christ's 
action  to  the  strictly  present,  especially  as  His  natural 
Body  could  not  be  "  broken"  on  the  cross  (cf.  Ex.,  xii, 
46;  John,  xix,  32  sq.),  but  also  implies  the  intention  of 
offering  a  "  body  broken  for  you  (vwip  ipuap)  i.  e.  the 
act  constituted  in  itself  a  true  food  offering.  All  doubt 
as  to  its  sacrificial  character  is  removed  by  the  expre»> 
sion  di66fiepop  in  St.  Luke,  which  the  Vulgate  thia  time 
quite  correctly  translates  into  the  present:  "quod  pro 
vobis  datur. "  But "  to  give  one's  body  for  otners  is 
as  truly  a  Biblical  expression  for  sacrifice  (cf .  John,  vi. 
52;  Rom.,  vii,  4;  Col.,  i,  22;  Heb.,  x,  10,  etc.)  as  the 
parallel  phrase,  "the  shedding  of  blood".  Christ, 
therefore,  at  the  !^^ast  Supper  offered  up  His  Body  as 
an  unbloody  sacrifice.  Finally,  that  He  commanded 
itie  renewal  for  all  time  of  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice 
through  the  Church  is  clear  from  the  addition:  "Do 
this  for  a  commemoration  of  me"  (Luke,  xxxii,  19; 
I  Cor.,  xi,  24). 

(b)  Proof  from  Tradition. — ^Harnack  is  of  opinion 
that  the  early  Church  up  to  the  time  of  Cyprian  (d. 
258)  contented  itself  with  the  purely  spiritual  sacri- 
fices of  adoration  and  thanksgiving  and  that  it  did  not 
possess  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  as  Catholicism  now 
understands  it.  In  a  scries  of  writings,  Dr.  Wieland, 
a  Catholic  priest,  likewise  maintained  in  the  face  of 
vigorous  opposition  from  other  theologians,  that  the 
early  Christians  confined  the  essence  of  the  Christian 
sacrifice  to  a  subjective  Eucharistic  prayer  of  thanks- 
giving, till  Irensus  (d.  202)  brought  forward  the  idea 
of  an  objective  offering  of  gifts,  and  especially  of  bread 
and  wine.  He,  according  to  this  view,  was  the  first  to 
include  in  his  expanded  conception  of  sacrifice,  the 
entirely  new  idea  of  material  offerings  (i.  e.  the  Eu- 
charistic elements)  which  up  to  that  time  the  early 
Church  had  formally  repudiated.  Were  this  assertion 
correct,  the  doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sesa. 


BIA88 


11 


MA88 


XXH,  c.  ii),  according  to  which  in  the  Mass  "the 
priests  offer  up,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of 
Christ,  His  Body  and  Blood''  (see  Denxinger,  "En- 
!:hir/',  n.  ^9),  could  hardly  take  its  stand  on  Apos- 
tolic tradition;  the  bridge  between  antiquity  and  the 
present  would  thus  have  been  broken  by  the  abrupt 
intrusion  of  a  completely  contrary  view.  An  impartial 
study  of  the  earliest  texts  seems  indeed  to  make  this 
much  clear,  that  the  early  Church  paid  most  attention 
to  the  spiritual  and  subjective  side  of  sacrifice  and  laid 
chief  stress  on  prayer  and  thanksgiving  in  the  Eucha- 
ristic  function. 

This  admission,  however,  is  not  identical  with  the 
statement  that  the  early  Church  rejected  out  and  out 
the  objective  sacrifice,  and  acknowledged  as  genuine 
only  the  spiritual  sacrifice  as  express^  in  the  "Eu- 
charistic  thanksgiving".  That  there  has  been  an  his- 
torical dogmatic  development  from  the  indefinite  to 
the  definite,  from  the  implicit  to  the  explicit,  from  the 
■eed  to  the  fruit,  no  one  familiar  with  the  subject  will 
deny.  An  assumption  so  reasonable,  the  only  one  in 
fact  consistent  with  Christianity,  is,  however,  funda- 
mentally different  from  the  hypothesis  that  the  Chris- 
tian idea  of  sacrifice  has  v^red  from  one  extreme  to 
the  other.  This  is  a  priori  improbable  and  unproved 
in  fact.  In  the  Didache  or* "Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles",  the  oldest  post-Biblical  literanr  monument 
(c.  A.  D.  96),  not  onlv  is  the  "breaking  of  bread"  (cf. 
Acts,  XX,  7)  referred  to  as  a  "sacrifice"  (Buala)  and 
mention  made  of  reconciliation  with  one's  enemy  be- 
fore the  sacrifice  (cf.  Matt.,  v,  23),  but  the  whole 
passage  is  crowned  with  an  actual  quotation  of  the 
prophecy  of  Malachias,  which  referred,  as  is  well 
Known,  to  an  objective  and  real  sacrifice  (Didache,  c. 
xiv).  The  early  Christians  gave  the  name  of  "sacri- 
fice" not  only  to  the  Eucharistic  "  thanks^ ving,"  but 
aLso  to  the  entire  ritual  celebration  including  the  litur- 
gical "breaking  of  bread",  without  at  furst  distin- 
guishing clearly  between  the  prayer  and  the  ijift 
(Bread  and  Wine;  Body  and  Blood).  When  Ignatius 
of  Antioch  (d.  107),  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles,  says  of 
the  Eucharist:  "There  is  onl^  one  flesh  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  only  one  chahce  containing  His  one 
Blood,  one  altar  (ip  Btwiarr-^putw),  as  also  only  one 
bishop  with  the  priesthood  and  the  deacons"  (Ep.,  ad. 
Philad.,  iv),  he  here  gives  to  the  lituxgical  Eucharistic 
celebration,  of  which  alone  he-speaks,  by  his  reference 
to  the  "altar"  an  evidentlv  sacrificial  meaning,  often 
as  he  may  use  the  word  " altar"  in  other  contexts  in  a 
metaphorical  sense. 

A  heated  controversv  had  raged  round  the  concep- 
tion of  Justin  Martyr  (d.  166)  from  the  fact  that  in  his 
**  Dialogue  with  Tryphon"  (c.  117)  he  characterises 
''prayer and  thanksgiving"  (e^al  xal  wdxttpwrlai)  as 
the  "one  perfect  sacrifice  acceptable  to  (jod"  {t^€uu 
itJbmA  ml  cMpcrrpc  Bvctw).  Did  he  intend  by  thus 
emphasising  the  interior  spiritual  sacrifice  to  exclude 
the  exterior  real  sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist?  Clearly  he 
did  not,  for  in  the  same  "  Dialogue"  (c.  xli:  P.  G.,  VT, 
564)  he  savs  the  "food  offering"  of  the  lepers,  assur- 
edly a  real  gift  offering  (cf.  Levit.,  xiv),  was  a  figure 
(v^rof)  of  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist,  which  Jesus 
commanded  to  be  offered  (vomSf)  in  commemoration 
of  His  sufferings  " .  He  then  goes  on : "  of  the  sacrifices 
which  you  (the  Jews)  formerly  offered,  God  through 
Malachias  said : '  I  have  no  pleasure,  etc.'  By  the  sacri- 
fices (^iwifif),  however,  wnich  we  Crentiles  present  to 
Him  in  ever^  place,  that  is  (rovr^rt)  of  the  bread  of 
the  Euchanst  ana  likewise  of  the  chalice  of  the 
Eucharist,  he  then  said  that  we  glorify  his  name, 
while  you  dishonour  him."  Here  "  bread  and  chalice" 
are  by  the  use  of  rwricn  clearly  included  as  objective 
gift  offerings  in  the  idea  of  the  Christian  sacrince.  If 
the  other  apolonsts  (Aristides,  Athenagoras,  Minucius 
Felix,  Amboiui)  vary  the  thought  a  great  deal — God 
has  no  need  of  sacrifice;  the  best  sacrifice  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Creator;  sacrifice  and  altars  are  unknown 


to  the  Christians — ^it  is  to  be  presumed  not  only  that 
under  the  restraint  imposed  by  the  ditcipltna  areard 
they  withheld  the  whole  trutn,  but  also  that  they 
rightly  repudiated  all  connexion  with  pagan  idolatry, 
the  sacrince  of  animals,  and  heathen  altars.  Tertiu- 
Han  bluntly  declared:  "We  offer  no  sacrifice  (non 
sacrificamus)  because  we  cannot  eat  both  the  Supper 
of  God  and  that  of  demons"  (De  spectac.,  c,  xui). 
And  yet  in  another  passa^  (De  orat.,  c,  xix)  he  calls 
Holy  Conununion  *' participation  in  the  sacrifice" 
(participatio  sacrificii),  which  is  accomplished  "on  the 
altar  of  God  "  (ad  aram  Dei) ;  he  speaks  (De  cult,  fern., 
II,  xi)  of  a  real,  not  a  mere  metapnorical,  "  offering  up 
of  sacrifice"  (sacrificium  offertur);  he  dwells  still  fur- 
ther as  a  Montanist  (de  pudicit,  c,  ix)  as  well  on  the 
"nourishing  power  of  tne  Lord's  Body"  (opimitate 
dominici  corporis)  as  on  the  "renewal  of  the  immola- 
tion of  Christ"  (rursus  illi  mactabitur  Christus). 

With  Irenseus  of  Lyons  there  comes  a  turning-point, 
inasmuch  as  he,  wiui  conscious  clearness,  first  puts 
forward  "bread  and  wine"  as  objective  gift  offerings, 
but  at  the  same  time  maintains  that  these  elements 
become  the  "body  and  blood"  of  the  Word  through 
consecration;  and  thus  by  simply  combining  these 
two  thoughts  we  have  the  Cathouc  Mass  of  to-day. 
According  to  him  (Adv.  hser.,  iv,  18, 4)  it  is  the  dSiurch 
alone  "that  offers  the  pure  oblation"  (oblationem 
puram  offert),  whereas  the  Jews  "did  not  receive  the 
Word,  which  is  offered  (or  through  whom  an  offering 
is  made)  to  God"  (non  recepenmt  Verbum  quod 
[aliter,  per  quod]  offertur  Deo).  Passing  over  the 
teaching  of  the  Alexandrine  Clement  and  ()ri^en, 
whose  love  of  allegoxy,  together  with  the  restrictions 
of  the  disciplina  arcanif  involved  their  writings  in  a 
mystic  obscurity,  we  make  particular  mention  of  Hip* 
polytus  of  Rome  (d.  235)  whose  celebrated  fragment 
Achelis  has  wrongly  characterised  as  spurious.  He 
writes  (Frofm.  in  Prov.,  ix,  i;  P.  G.,  LXXX,  693), 
"The  Word  prepared  His  Precious  and  immaculate 
Body  (ffQfta)  and  His  Blood  (aZ)tM),  that  daily  (m^ 
ixdirrriv)  are  set  forth  as  a  sacrifice  (hrirtKoOrrw,  Mimva) 
on  the  mystic  and  Divine  table  {rpawil^)  as  a 
memorial  of  that  ever  memorable  first  table  of  the 
mysterious  supper  of  the  Lord".  Since  according  to 
the  judgment  of  even  Protestant  historians  of  doKma, 
St.  Cynl  (d.  258)  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  "herald"  of 
Catholic  doctrine  on  the  Mass,  we  may  likewise  pass 
him  over,  as  well  as  Cvril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  386)  and 
Chrysostom  (d.  407)  who  have  been  charaed  with  ex- 
aggerated "realism",  and  whose  plain  oiscourses  on 
the  sacrifice  rival  those  of  Basil  (d.  379),  Gregory  of 
Nyssa  (d.  c.  394)  and  Ambrose  (d.  397).  Only  about 
Augustine  (d.  430)  must  a  word  be  said,  since,  in  re- 
(^ara  to  liie  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  he 
IS  cited  as  favouring  the  * '  symbolical "  theory.  Now  it 
is  precisely  his  teacning  on  sacrifice  that  best  serves  to 
cl^r  away  the  suspicion  that  he  inclined  to  a  merely 
spiritual  interpretation. 

For  Augustme  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that 
eveiy  religion,  whether  true  or  false,  must  have  an 
exterior  form  of  celebration  and  worship  (contra 
Faust.,  xix,  11).  Tliis  applies  as  well  to  Christians 
(1.  c,  XX,  18),  who  "commemorate  the  sacrifice  con- 
summated (on  the  cross)  by  the  holiest  oblation  and 
participation  of  tiie  Body  and  Blood  of  CSirist"  (cele- 
orant  sacrosancta  oblatione  et  participatione  coiporis 
et  sanguinis  Christi).  The  Mass  is,  in  ms  eyes  (de  civ. 
Dei,  X,  20),  the  "highest  and  true  sacrifice"  (sum- 
mum  verumque  sacrificium),  Christ  being  at  once 
"priest  and  victim"  (ipse  offerens,  ipse  et  oblatio); 
and  he  reminds  the  Jews  (Adv.  Jud.,  ix,  13)  that  the 
sacrifice  of  Malachias  is  now  made  in  every  place  (in 
omni  loco  offerri  sacrificium  Christianorum).  He  re- 
lates of  his  mother  Monica  (Confess.,  ix,  13)  that  she 
had  asked  for  prayers  at  the  altar  (ad  altare)  for  her 
soul  and  had  attended  Mass  daily.  From  Augustine 
onwards  the  current  of  the  dJhuroh's  tradition  flows 


12  MASS 

smoothly  along  in  a  well-ordered  channel,  without  150).    The  moet  convincing  evidence,  however,  from 

check  or  disturbance,  through  the  Middle  Ages  to  our  those  early  days  is  furnished  by  the  liturgies  of  the 

own  time.    Even  the  powerful  attempt  made  to  stem  West  and  the  East,  the  basic  principles  of  which  reach 

it  through  the  Reformation  had  no  ^ect.  back  to  Apostolic  times  and  in  wnich  the  sacrificial 

A  briefer  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  the  Mass  idea  of  the  Eucharistic  celebration  found  unadui- 

is  the  so-called  proof  from  prescription,  which  is  thus  terated  and  decisive  expression  (see  Liturgies).    We 

formulated:  A  sacrificial  nte  in  tne  Church  which  is  have  therefore  traced  the  Mass  from  the  present  to  the 

older  than  the  oldest  attack  made  on  it  by  heretics  earliest  times,  thus  establishing  its  Apostolic  origin, 

cannot  be  decried  as  ''idolatry",  but  must  be  referred  which  in  turn  goes  back  again  to  the  Last  Supper, 
back  to  the  Founder  of  Cm*i8tianity   as  a   rightful         On  the  idea  oT  Sacrifice  cf.  Becakus.  De  triplid  aaaiAcio 

heritage  of  which  He  was  .the  originator     Now  the  SSSS'i^-S^Jinrja'  ilS^^^^'y^i'^'^l 

Church's  legitimate  possession  as  regards  the  Mass  can  Pnuter  und  Opfervabt  (Maim.  1886) ;  for  scripture  pnmf.  cf .  the 

be  traced  CAck  to  the  beginnings  of  Christianity;  it  exegetical  commentaries  of  Knabbnbauer.  Scbanz.  ScbXfer. 

follows  that  the  MasB  waa  Divinebr  instituted  by  ^^fg^ilSr^^iJ^t^fZJti^^r^l^^  ffifS 

Christ.    Hegardmg  the  mmor  proposition,  the  proof  of  earodhrt  rdiffieux  de  la  SainU  Cine  in  Revue  chrHienne,  LVI 

which  alone  concerns  us  here,  we  may  begin  at  once  i^^h  *1®/  ^'SSF*^^™*  ^"^  ^iST^  ^  iui9^K9  im  Hebraer- 

with  the  B«fomation.  the  only  movement  Sujt  utterly  SStfa^Hil,?^'?:  r  "'if-fc}'^ 

did  away  with  the  Mass.    Psychologically,  it  is  quite  Sxpoeitor,  JCOX  (1903),  370  so.;  Mackintosh.  rA«  Objective 

intelligible  that  men  like  Zwingli,  Karlstadt  and  C£co-  4«p«c«  of  the  LnxPe  Supper  m  The  Expositor,  XXIX,  180  sq. ; 

lampadius  should  tear  do^  the  altars,  for  they  denied  ^h%iS^:i5i^::%!^!!t.'^^^^ 

Chnsts  real  presence  m  the  Sacrament.    Calvinism  and  the  Cup  of  the  Demoru  m  The  Expo9itor,XXXlll{i90»).  290 

also    in    revihng    the    "papistical    mass"    which    the  "S^   Bamsa,  Die  moderne  protee^antia^  AbendmahUforsehunff 

Heidelberg  catechism  characteri«d  as  "cursed  idota-  23"(J<S,  ??' C"±?  ^S^lSSEJS^'iSK'  ^535 

try"  was    merely    self-consistent    Smce  it   adnutted  rMunich,  1006);  Idkm,  Der  vorirenAieche  Opferhegnf  (Munich, 

only  a  **  dvnamic  "  presence.     It  is  rather  strange  on  1?W).    For  a  contrary  view  see  DoRscn^er  gpfercharalder  der 

the  other  hand  that^  in  spite  of  his.beUef  in  the Iteral  f  JS&rS.7Jr7J^?S(,23.°?SS,t .'{^j:  'k^TSS'S^ 

meamng  of  the  words  of  consecration,  Luther,  after  a  eharokter  der  Eueharietie  naeh  der  Lehre  der  VAter  und  Kirchm- 

violent  "nocturnal  disputation  with  the  devil",   in  fchrifteteUer  der  erUen  drei  JahrhunderU  (Paderbpm.    1892); 

1521   should  have  repu«Uated  the  Mass.    But  it  is  giSSfi^f'&iiS^^  '^iJaTrnT'Sr  ST^T 'i 

exactly  these  measures  of  violence  that  best  show  to  Jahrhunderten  (2nd  ed..  Fribouiv.  lOlO);   Brxdoeit.  a  Hie- 

what  a  depth  the  institution  of  the  Mass  had  taken  tory  of  the  Holu  Eueharut  in  Oreat  Britain  (London,  1908); 

root  bythat  time  in  Churdh,  and  people.    How  long  fc^l-J*  ,%  fX^J]^^  S^iri^ti^^^ 

had  it  been  taking  root?    The  answer,  to  begin  with,  London,  1909);  Nabolb,  DU  EueharietieUhre  dee  hi.  Chryeoeto- 

is:  all  through  the  Middle  Ages  back  to  Photius,  the  •»»•«  (Fribours,  1900);  Wildbn.  Die  Lehre  dee  fd.  Au(nutinue 

V^^^'  T^  Eastemlchism   (869)      Though  ^^"^'k'^J^^'^ ^^^SS^^' i^^^V,: 

Wycline  protested  against  the  teaching  of  the  Council  deri>om,  1907);   Adam,  DU  BuchariaUeUhre  dee  hi.   AuguMin 

of  Constance  (1414^18),  which  maintained  that  the  (Padertwm.  1906);  Frani.  Die  AfeM«  imdndechen  MiUelalter 

Mass  could  be  pi^ved  from  Scnptm^;  and  though  the  I^)^&r^lLl'i^^S;c£l^^^^  JC^S^ur'at^ 

Alblgenses  and  Waldenses  claimed  for  the  laity  also  bewahrten  Bueharietie  (Freibui^.  1908) :   Probst,  Die  Liturffie 

the  power  to  offer  sacrifice  (cf .  Densinger,  "  Enchir.",  ^  ^riten  drei  chriMlidien  Jahrhunderte  (TQbingen.  1870) ;  Idem, 

6S5.  and  .430).  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  even  the  ?SS2iffSiLX*A£S!Si:StSii  IS^L^ 

schismatic  Greeks  held  fast  to  the  EuchanstlC  sacrifice  hundeH  (Monster,  1896) :    Monk.  Lateinieehe  und  Griechieche 

as  a  precious  heritage  from  their  Catholic  past.     In  MeeBmauedemS.biee.JahrhufuleH  (Fnwnkfurt,  1850);  Swain* 

tiie  negotiations  for  reunion  at  Ljons  (1^)  and  jgS^j^S^^^r?.  {S&°)1""8.iSl:  ^T^'^'^ 

Florence  (1439)  they  showed  moreover  that  they  had  ttona  e  nei  auoi  SimboK  (2nd  ed..  Rome.   1907);    Ebmoni, 

kept  it  intact:  and  they  have  faithfully  safeguarded  it  I^Euehari^  dane  VEgliee  ©rimiliw  <5th  ed.,  Paris,   1908); 

to♦^ll«  rlav      Fmm  aH  which  it  in  rlpar  t>iA+  fh«»  Ma.<«  CABaoL,  Origxnee  Mttiyurties  (Pans,  1906);  Baumstarx,  Lttur- 

tniS  day.    ^rom  an  wnicn  it  is  Ciear  tnat  tne  Mass  ^  Homana  e  Liturgia  dkl*  Eaarcato  (Rome,  1904);  Idem.  Die 

existed  m  both  Churches  long  before  Photius,  a  con-  2ieeee  im  Morvenland  (Kempten,  1906):   Drews,  Unterauch' 

elusion  borne  out  by  the  monuments  of  Christian  jgv^*  *^.4*«  *V«»-   CUmmtiniaeho  LUuroie  (Letpsjc,  1906); 

■> ry* ; niii'f  <ir  WxLPBBT,    Froctio  panxa    oder  dte  dlteete  Daratellung  dee  euchar. 

antlClUlty.  ^      ,      ,  ,    ,  *u       s   au  x     au  Opfere  m  der  Cappdla  Greea  (Freiburg,   1895);    Idem,  Die 

Taking  a  long  step  backwards  from  the  ninth  to  the  lUmiechen  Katakon&en  (Freibui«,  1903). 
fourth  century,  we  come  upon  the  Nestorians  and 

Monophvsites  who  were  driven  out  of  the  Church        (2)  The  Nature  of  the  Mass. — In  its  denial  of  the 

during  the  fifth  century  at  Ephesus  (431)  and  Chalce-  true  Divinity  of  Christ  and  of  every  supernatural  insti- 

don  (451).    From  that  day  to  this  they  have  cele-  tution,  modem  unbelief  endeavours,  by  means  of  the 

brated  in  their  solemn  liturgy  the  sacrifice  of  the  New  so-called  historico-religious  methoa,  to  explain  the 

Law,  and  since  thev  could  only  haVe  taken  it  with  character  of  the  Eucharist  and  the  Eucharistic  sacri- 

them  from  the  old  Christian  Church,  it  follows  that  the  fice  as  the  natural  result  of  a  spontaneous  process  of 

Mass  ^oes  back  in  the  Church  beyond  the  time  of  development  in  the  Christian  religion.    In  this  con- 

Nestonanism  and  Monophysitism.     Indeed,  the  first  nexion  it  is  interesting  to  observe  how  these  dififerent 

Nicene  Council  (325)  m  its  celebrated  eig;hteenth  and  conflicting  hypotheses  refute  one  another,  with 

canon  forbade  priests  to  receive  the  Eucharist  from  Uie  rather  startling  result  at  the  end  of  it  all  that  a 

the  hands  of  deacons  for  the  verv  obvious  reason  that  new,  great,  and  insoluble  problem  looms  up  for  in vesti- 

"neither  the  canon  nor  custom  have  handed  down  to  gation.    While  some  discover  the  roots  of  the  Mass  in 

us,  that  those,  who  have  not  the  power  to  offer  sacri-  the  Jewish  funeral  feasts  (O.  Holtzmann)  or  in  Jewish 

fice  (wpoff^peiw)  may  «ve  Christ's  body  to  those  who  Essenism  (Bousset,  HeitmQlIer,  Wernle),  others  delve 

offer  (irpoff4>4povffi) ".    Hence  it  is  plain  that  for  the  in  the  undergroimd  strata  of  pagan  religions.    Hert\ 

celebration  of  the  Mass  there  was  required  the  dignitv  however,  a  rich  variety  of  hypotheses  is  placed  at  their 

of  a  special  priesthood,  from  which  the  deacons  as  such  disposal.    In  this  age  of  Pan-Babylonism  it  is  not  at  all 

were  excluaed.    Since,  however,  the  Nicene  Council  suiprisin^  that  the  germinal  icleas  of  the  Christian 

speaks  of  a  "custom'',  that  takes  us  at  once  into  the  communion  should  be  located  in  Babylon,  where  in 

third  century,  we  are  already  in  the  age  of  the  Catacombs  the  Adapa  myth  (on  the  tablet  of  Tell  Amama)  men- 

(q.  V.)  with  their  Eucharistic  pictures,  which  accord-  tion  has  been  found  of  "water  of  life''  and  "food  of 

ing  to  the  best  founded  opinions  represent  the  litur-  life"  (Zimmem).    Others  (e.  g.  Brandt)  fancy  they 

gical  celebration  of  the  Mass.    According  to  Wilpert,  have  found  a  still  more  striking  analog  in  the  '*'  bread 

^he  oldest  representation  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  is  in  the  and  water"  (PathA  and  Mambiihd)  of  the  Mand«>an 

"Greek  Chapel"  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla  (c.  religion.    The  view  most  widely  held  to-day  ^oiig 

/ 

/ 

; 


BIA88  13  BIAS8 

opfaolders  of  the  historico-religious  theory  is  that  the  as  the  li vins  realisation,  representation  and  renewal  of 

Eiicharist  and  the  Mass  originated  in  the  practices  of  the  past.    Only  the  Last  Supper,  standing  midway  as 

the  Persian  Mitnraism  (Dieterich.  H.  T.  Moltsmann,  it  were  between  liie  figure  and  its  fulfilment,  still 

Pfleiderer,  Robert^xi^  etc.) .  ' '  In  the  Mandiean  mass  **,  looked  to  the  future,  in  so  far  as  it  was  an  antici^tory 

writes  Cixmont  C'Mysterien  des  Mithra".  Leipzig,  commemoration  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross.    In  the 

1903,  p.  118),  "the  celebrant  consecrated  oreaa  and  discourse  in  which  the  Eucharist  was  instituted,  the 

water,  which  he  mixed  with  perfimied  Haoma-juice,  "giving  of  the  body  "  and  the  "  shedding  of  the  Blood " 

and  ate  this  food  while  performing  the  functions  of  were  of  necessity  related  to  the  physical  separation  of 

divine  aervice".    Tertullian  in  anger  ascribed  this  the  blood  from  the  body  on  the  Crass,  without  which 

mimicking  of  Christian  rites  to  the  "  devil"  and  ob-  the  sacramental  immolation  of  Christ  at  tiie  Last  Sup- 


served  in  astonishment  (De  prsBscript  hseret,  C.  xl) :  per  would  be  inconceivable.     The  Fathers  of  the 

"  Gelebrat  (Mithras)  et  p^us  oolationem."  This  is  not  Church,  such  as  Cyprian  (Ep.,  1^11,  9,  ed.  Hartel,  11, 

the  place  to  criticise  in  detail  these  wild  creations  of  708),  Ambrose  (De  offic,  I,  xlviii),  Augustine  (Contra 

an  overheated  phantasy.   Let  it  sufiice  to  note  that  all  Faiut.,  XX,  xviii)  and  Gregory  the  Great  (Dial.,  IV, 

these  explanations  necessarily  lead  to  impenetrable  Iviii^,  indst  that  the  Mass  in  its  essential  nature  must 

nighty  as  Ions  as  men  refuse  to  believe  in  the  true  be  tnat  which  Christ  Himselfcharacterized  as  a" com- 

Divinity  of  Cnrist,  who  commanded  that  His  bloody  memoration"  of  Him  (Luke,  xxii,  19)  and  Paul  as  the 

sacrifice  on  the  Cross  should  be  daily  renewed  by  an  ''showing  of  the  death  of  the  Lora''  (I  Cor.,  xi,  26). 
unbloody  sacrifice  of  His  Bodv  and  Blood  in  the  Mass        Kegarding  the  other  aspect  of  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

under  the  simple  elements  of  bread  and  wine.    This  C^ss,  vis.  uie  impossibility  of  its  renewal,  its  single- 

ak>De  is  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  Mass.  ness  and  its  power,  Paul  again  proclaimed  yrith.  energy 

(a)  The  Physical  CSiaracter  of  the  Blass. — ^In  regard  that  Christ  on  the  Cross  definitively  redeemed  the 

to  the  physical  character  there  arises  not  only  the  whole  world,  in  that  he  "by  His  own  Blood,  entered 

question  as  to  the  concrete  i)ortions  of  the  liturgy,  in  once  into  the  holies,  having  obtained  eternal  redemp- 

which  the  real  offering  lies  hidden,  but  also  the  ques-  tion''  (Heb.,  ix,  12).   This  does  not  mean  that  man- 

tion  regarding  the  relation  of  the  Mass  to  the  bloody  kind  is  suddenly  and  without  the  action  of  its  own  will 

of  the  Cross.    To  begin  with  the  latter  ques-  brought  back  to  the  state  of  innocence  in  Paradise  and 


tion  as  much  the  more  important.  Catholics  and  belie  v-  set  above  the  necessitjr  of  working  to  secure  for  itself 

ing  Protestants  alike  acknowlecwe  that  as  Christians  the  fruits  of  redemption.    Otherwise  children  would 

we  venerate  in  the  bloody  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  the  be  in  no  need  of  baptism  nor  adults  of  justifying  faith 

one,  universal,  absolute  Sacrifice  for  the  salvation  of  to  win  eternal  happmess.    The  "completion"  spoken 

the  world.    And  this  indeed  is  true  in  a  double  sense:  of  by  Paul  can  therefore  refer  only  to  the  objective 

first,  because  among  all  the  sacrifices  of  the  past  and  side  of  redemption,  which  does  not  disi)en8e  with,  but 

future  ^e  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross  alone  stands  without  on  the  contra^  requires,  the  proper  subjective  disposi- 

any  relation  to,  and  absolutely  independent  of,  anv  tion.   The  sacrifice  once  offered  on  the  Cross  filled  the 

other  sacrifioe,  a  complete  totality  and  unity  in  itself;  infinite  reservoirs  to  overflowing  with  healing  waters; 

second,  because  every  grace,  means  of  srace  and  sacri-  but  those  who  thirst  after  justice  must  come  with  their 

fioe,  whether  belozs^^ing  to  the  Jewisn,  Christian  or  chalices  and  draw  out  what  they  need  to  quench  their 

pagan  economy,  derive  tneirwholeimdivided  strength,  thirst.    In  this  important  distinction  between  objec- 

value,  and  efficacy  singlyand  alone  from  this  abt^Tute  tive  and  subjective  redemption,  which  belongs  to  Uie 

sacrifice  on  the  Cross.    The  first  consideration  implies  essence  of  Christianity,  lies  not  merely  the  possibility, 

that  all  Uie  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  but  also  the  justification  of  the  Mass.   But  nere  unfor- 

the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  bear  the  essential  mark  of  tunately  C!atholics  and  Protestants  part  company, 

relativi^  in  so  far  as  they  are  necessarily  related  to  The  latter  can  see  in  the  Mass  only  a  "denial  of  the  one 

theSacnfieeoftheCro6S,astheperipher}rofacircIeto  sacrifice  of  Jesus  Christ".   This  is  a  wrong  view;  for  if 

the  centre.    From  the  second  consideration  it  follows  the  Mass  can  do  and  does  no  more  than  conve^r  the 

that  all  other  sacrifices,  the  Mass  included,  are  empty,  merits  of  Christ  to  mankind  by  means  of  a  sacrifice, 

barren  and  void  of  effect,  so  far  and  so  long  as  they  are  exactly  as  the  sacraments  do  it  without  the  use  of  sao- 

not  supplied  from  the  mainstream  of  merits  (due  to  rifice,  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  Mass  is  neither  a 

the  sunering)  of  the  Crucified.  Let  us  deal  briefly  with  second  independent  sacrifice  alongside  of  the  sacrifice 

this  double  relationisdiip.  on  the  Cross,  nor  a  substitute  whereby  the  sacrifice  on 

Regarding  the  qualification  of  relativity,  which  ad-  the  Cross  is  completed  or  its  value  enhanced. 
heres  to  everj^  sacrifice  other  than  the  sacrifice  of  the        The  only  distinction  between  the  Mass  and  the  sao- 

CroBs,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  rament  lies  in  this:  that  the  latter  applies  to  the  indi- 

Testament  b^  their  figurative  forms  and  prophetic  si^-  vidual  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross  by  simple 

nificanoe  pomt  to  the  sacrifioe  of  the  Cross  as  their  distribution,  the  other  by  a  specific  offering.   In  both, 

eventual  fulfillment.    The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  Church  draws  upon  the  one  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross, 

(viii-x)  in  particular  develops  grandlv  ihe  figurative  This  is  and  remains  the  one  Sun,  that  gives  life,  light, 

character  <n  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament.   Not  and  warmth  to  everything;  the  sacraments  and  the 

only  was  the  Levitic  priesthood,  as  a  "shadow  of  the  Mass  are  only  the  planets  that  revolve  round  the  cen- 

things  to  come"  a  famt  type  of  the  high  priesthood  tral  body.   Take  the  Sun  away  and  the  Mass  is  anni- 

of  ^rist;  but  the  ocnnplex  sacrificial  cult,  broadly  hilated  not  one  whit  less  than  the  sacraments.   On  the 

spread  out  in  its  parts,  prefigured  the  one  sacrifice  of  other  hand,  without  these  two  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

the  Cross.    Serving  onl^  the  legal  "cleansing  of  the  Cross  would  reign  as  independently  as,  conceivably, 

flesh "tibeLeviticaTsacnfices  could  effect  no  true  "for-  the  sun  without  the  planets.    The  CV)uncil  of  Trent 

givenesB  of  sins";  l^  their  very  inefficacy  however  (Sess.  XXII,  can.  iv^  therefore  rightly  protested 

they  point  prophetically  to  the  perfect  sacrifice  of  against  the  reproach  that  "the  Mass  is  a  blasphemy 

propitiation  on  Golgotha.    Just  for  that  reason  their  against  or  a  derogation  from  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

continual  repetition  as  well  as  their  great  diversity  was  Cross  "  (cf .  Denzinger, "  Enchir.",  951).   Must  not  the 

essential  to  them,  as  a  means  of  keeping  alive  in  the  same  reproach  be  cast  upon  the  Sacraments  also? 

Jews  the  yearning  for  Uie  true  sacxince  of  expiation  Does  it  not  apply  to  baptism  and  communion  among 

which  the  future  was  to  brine.    This  longing  was  sati-  Protestants?    And  how  can  Christ  Himself  put  blas- 

ated  only  by  the  single  SacriSce  of  the  Cross,  which  was  phemy  and  darkness  in  the  way  of  His  Sacrifice  on  the 

never  again  to  be  repeated.  Naturall]^  the  Mass,  too,  if  Cross  when  He  Himself  is  the  I^h  Priest,  in  whose 

it  is  to  have  the  cnaracter  of  a  legitimate  sacrifice, '  name  and  by  whose  commission  Mis  human  represen- 

must  be  in  accord  witJi  this  inviolable  rule,  no  longer  tative  offers  sacrifice  with  the  words:  "This  is  my 

indeed  as  a  type  prophetic  of  future  things,  but  rather  Body,  this  is  my  Blood  "?    It  is  the  express  teaching 


MASS 


14 


MA88 


(applicatio)  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross.  When  indeed 
me  Roman  Catechism  (II,  c.  iv,  Q.  70),  as  a  fourth 
relation,  adopts  the  daily  rej^tition  (instauratio),  it 
means  that  such  a  repetition  is  to  be  taken  not  in  the 
sense  of  a  multiplication,  but  simply  of  an  application 
of  the  merits  of  the  passion.  Just  as  the  Church  repu- 
diates nothing  so  much  as  the  suggestion  that  by  the 
Mass  the  sacrifice  on  the  Cross  is  as  it  were  set  aside,  so 
she  goes  a  step  farther  and  maintains  the  essential 
identity  of  botn  sacrifices,  holding  that  Uie  main  dif- 
ference between  them  is  in  the  different  manner  of 
sacrifice — ^the  one  bloody,  the  other  unbloody  (TVent, 
Sess.  XXII,  ii) : "  Una  enim  eademcjue  est  hostia,  idem 
nunc  offerens  sacerdotum  ministerio,  qui  seipsum  tunc 
in  cruce  obtulit,  sola  offerendi  ratione  diversa."  Inas- 
much as  the  sacrificing  priest  (offerens)  and  the  sacri- 
ficial victim  (hostia)  in  ooth  sacrifices  are  (Christ  Him- 
self, their  sameness  amounts  even  to  a  numerical  iden- 
tity. In  regard  to  the  manner  of  the  sacrifice  (offerendi 
ratio)  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  naturally  a  question 
only  of  a  specific  identity  or  imity  that  includes  the 
possibility  of  ten,  a  hundred,  or  a  uiousand  masses. 

(b)  Turning  now  to  the  other  question  as  to  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  liturgv  of  the  Blass  in  which 
the  real  sacrifice  is  to  be  looked  for,  we  need  only  take 
into  consideration  its  three  chief  parts;  the  Offertory, 
the  Consecration  and  the  Communion.  The  antiquated 
view  of  Johann  Eck,  according  to  which  the  act  of  sac- 
rifice was  comprised  in  the  prayer  "  Unde  et  memores 
.  .  .  offerimus'',  is  thus  excluded  from  our  discussion, 
as  is  also  the  opinion  of  Melchior  Canus,  who  held  that 
the  sacrifice  is  accomplished  in  the  symbolical  cere- 
mony of  the  breaking  of  the  Host  and  its  commingling 
wilJi  the  Chalice.  The  Question  therefore  arises  first: 
Is  the  sacrifice  comprised  in  the  Offertory?  From  the 
wording  of  the  prayer  this  much  at  least  is  clear,  that 
bread  and  wine  constitute  the  secondary  sacrificial 
elements  of  the  Mass,  since  the  priest,  in  the  true  lan- 
guage of  sacrifice,  offers  to  Ood  bread  as  an  "un- 
spotted host"  (immaculatam  hostiam)  and  wine  as 
tne  "chalice  of  salvation"  (calicem  salutaris).  But 
the  very  significance  of  liiis  language  proves  that  at^ 
tention  is  mainly  directed  to  the  prospective  transub- 
stantiation  of  the  Eucharistic  elements.  Since  the 
Mass  is  not  a  mere  offering  of  bread  and  wine,  like  the 
figurative  food  offering  of  Melchisedech,  it  is  clear  that 
only  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  can  be  the  primary 
matter  of  the  sacrifice,  as  was  the  case  at  tne  Last 
Supper  (cf.  IVent,  Sess.  XXII,  i,  can.  2;  Denzinger, 
n.  938,  949).  Consequently,  the  sacrifice  is  not  in  the 
Offertory.  Does  it  consist  then  in  the  priest's  Com- 
munion? There  were  and  are  theologians  who  favour 
that  view.  They  can  be  ranged  in  two  classes,  accord- 
ing as  they  see  in  the  Communion  the  essential  or  the 
oo-essential. 

Those  who  belong  to  the  first  category  (Dominicus 
Soto,  Renz,  Bellora)  had  to  beware  of  the  heretical 
doctrine  proscribed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXII,  can.  I),  viz.,  that  Mass  and  Communion  were 
identical.  In  American  and  English  circles  the  so- 
called  "banquet-theory"  of  the  LGite  Bishop  Bellord 
once  created  some  stir  (cf .  The  Ecclesiastical  Review, 
XXXIII,  1905,  258  sq.).  Accordmg  to  that  view,  the 
essence  of  the  sacrifice  was  not  to  he  looked  for  in  the 
offering  of  a  gift  to  God,  but  solely  in  the  Communion. 
Without  communion  there  was  no  sacrifice.  Regard- 
ing pagan  sacrifices  Dollinger  ("Heidentum  und 
Judentum",  Ratisbon,  1857)  had  already  demon- 
strated the  incompatibility  of  this  view.  With  the 
complete  shedding  of  blooa  pagan  sacrifices  ended,  so 
that  the  supper  which  sometimes  followed  it  was  ex- 
pressive merely  of  the  satisfaction  felt  at  the  reconcil- 
iation with  the  f^ods.  Even  the  horrible  human  sacri- 
6ce9  bad  M  tbeir  pbject  the  death  of  the  victim  only 


and  not  a  cannibal  feast  (cf.  Mader,  "Die  Mensehen- 
opfer  der  alten  Hebrfter  und  der  benaohbarten  Vdlker", 
freiburg,  1909).  As  to  the  Jews^  onlv  a  few  Levitical 
sacrifices,  such  as  the  peace  offering,  nad  feastinx;  con- 
nected with  them;  most,  and  especially  the  burnt 
offerings  (holocausta),  were  accomplished  without 
feastinff  (cf.  Levit.,  vi,  9  sq.).  Bishop  Bellord,  having 
cast  in  nis  lot  with  the  "  banquetF>theoxy  ",  could  natu- 
rally find  the  essence  of  the  Mass  in  the  priests'  Com- 
munion only.  He  was  indeed  logically  bound  to  allow 
that  the  Oucifixion  itself  had  the  character  of  a  sacri- 
fice only  in  conjunction  with  the  hast  Supper,  at  which 
alone  food  was  taken;  for  the  Crucifixion  excluded 
any  ritual  food  offering.  These  disquieting  conse- 
quences are  all  the  more  serious  in  that  they  are  devoid 
of  any  scientific  basis  (see  Pesch,  "Pnel.  dogmat.", 
VI,  379  sq.,  Freiburg,  1908). 

Harmless,  even  though  improbable,  is  that  other 
view  (Bellarmine,  De  Lugo,  Toumely,  etc.)  which  in- 
cludes the  Communion  as  at  least  a  co-essential  factor 
in  the  constitution  of  the  Mass;  for  the  consumption 
of  the  Host  and  of  the  contents  of  the  QiaUoe,  beuig  a 
kind  of  destruction,  would  appear  to  accord  with  Uie 
conception  of  the  sacrifice  developed  above.  But  only 
in  appearance;  for  the  sacrificial  transformation  of  the 
victim  must  take  place  on  the  altar,  and  not  in  the 
body  of  the  celebrant,  while  the  partaking  of  the  two 
elements  can  at  most  represent  the  burial  and  not  the 
sacrificial  death  of  Christ.  The  Last  Supper  alao 
would  have  been  a  true  sacrifice  only  on  condition  that 
Christ  had  given  the  Communion  not  only  to  His  apos- 
tles but  also  to  Himself.  There  is  however  no  evidence 
that  such  a  Conamunion  ever  took  place,  probable  as  it 
may  appear.  For  the  rest,  the  Communion  of  the  priest 
is  not  the  sacrifice,  but  only  the  completion  ot,  and 
participation  in,  the  sacrifice;  it  belongs  therefore  not 
to  the  essence,  but  to  the  integrity  of  the  sacrifice. 
And  this  integrity  is  also  preserved  absolutely  even  in 
the  so-called  "private  Mass"  at  which  tiie  priest  alone 
communicates;  private  Masses  are  allowed  for  that 
reason  (cf.  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  can.  8).  When  the 
Jansenist  S3rnod  of  Pistoia  (1786),  proelaiminf  the 
false  principle  that  "participation  in  the  sacrince  is 
essential  to  the  sacrifice",  demanded  at  least  the  mak- 
ing of  a  "spiritual  communion"  on  the  pprt  of  the 
faithful  as  a  condition  of  allowing  private  Masses,  it 
was  denied  by  Pius  VI  in  his  Bufi  "Auctorem  fidei'* 
(1796)  (see  Denxinger,  n.  1528). 

After  the  elimination  of  the  Offertory  and  Com- 
munion, there  remains  only  the  Consecration  as  the 
part  in  which  the  true  sacrifice  is  to  be  songht.  In 
realltjr,  that  part  alone  is  to  be  r^arded  as  the  ]m>per 
sacrificial  act  which  is  such  by  Christ's  own  institu- 
tion. Now  the  Lord's  words  are:  "This  is  my  Body; 
this  is  my  Blood."  The  Oriental  Epiklesis  (q.  v.)  can- 
not be  considered  as  the  moment  of  consecration  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  absent  in  the  Mass  In  the  West  and 
is  known  to  have  first  come  into  practice  after  Apos- 
tolic times  (see  Euchasiot).  The  sacrifice  must  akK> 
be  at  the  point  where  Christ  personally  appears  as 
High  Priest  and  the  human  celebrant  acts  only  as  his 
representative.  The  priest  does  not  however  assume 
the  personal  part  of  Christ  either  at  the  Offertory  or 
Communion.  He  only  does  so  when  he  speaks  the 
words :  "This  is  My  Body;  this  is  My  Blood ' .  in  which 
there  is  no  possible  reference  to  the  body  and  blood  of 
the  celebrant.  While  the  Consecration  as  such  can  be 
shown  with  certainty  to  be  the  act  of-&crifioe,  the 
necessity  of  the  twofold  consecration  can  be  demon- 
strated onlv  as  highly  probable.  Not  only  older  theo- 
logians such  as  Frassen,  Gotti,  and  Bonacina,  but  also 
later  theologians  such  as  Schouppen,  Stentrup  and  Fr. 
Schmid,  have  supported  the  imtenable  theorv  that 
when  one  of  the  consecrated  elements  is  invalia,  such 
as  barley  bread  or  cider,  the  consecration  of  the  valid 
element  not  onl^  produces  the  Sacrament,  but  also  the 
(mutilated)  sacrince.  Their  chief  argument  is  that  th« 


BCABS 


15 


MASS 


sacrftnant  in  the  Eucharist  is  inaeparable  in  idea  from 
the  sacrifice.  But  they  entirelv  overiooked  the  fact 
that  Christ  positively  prescribed  the  twofold  consecra- 
tion for  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  (not  for  the  sacra- 
meni),  and  especially  the  fact  that  in  the  consecration 
of  onR  element  only  the  intrinsically  essential  relation 
of  the  Hass  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  is  not  symboli- 
cally represented.  Since  it  was  no  mere  death  from 
suffocation  that  Christ  suffered,  but  a  bloody  death, 
in  which  His  veins  were  emptied  of  their  Blood,  this 
condition  of  separation  must  receive  visible  represen- 
tation on  the  altar,  as  in  a  sublime  drama.  This 
condition  is  fulfilled  only  by  the  double  consecration, 
which  brings  before  our  eyes  the  Body  and  the  Blood 
in  the  state  of  separation,  and  thus  represents  the 
mystical  shedding  of  blood.  Consequently,  the  double 
consecration  is  an  absolutely  essential  element  of  the 
Mass  as  a  relative  sacrifice. 

(b)  The  Metaphysical  Character  of  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass. — ^The  physical  essence  of  the  Mass  having 
been  established  m  the  consecration  of  the  two  species, 
the  metaphysical  question  arises  as  to  whether  and  in 
what  degree  tiie  scientific  concept  of  sacrifice  is  real- 
ized in  this  double  consecration!  Since  the  three  ideas, 
sacrificing  priest,  sacrificial  gift,  and  sacrificial  object, 

{>re8ent  no  difficulty  to  the  understanding,  the  prob- 
em  is  finally  seen  to  lie  entirely  in  the  determination 
of  the  real  sacrificial  act  (actio  som/lca),  and  indeed 
not  so  much  in  the  form  of  this  act  as  in  the  matter, 
since  the  glorified  Victim,  in  consequence  of  Its  impas- 
sibility, cannot  be  really  transformed,  much  less  de- 
stroyea.  In  their  investigation  of  the  idea  of  destruc- 
tion, the  post-Tridentine  theologians  have  brought 
into  play  all  their  acuteness,  often  with  brilliant  re- 
sults, and  have  elaborated  a  series  of  theories  concern- 
ing the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  of  which,  however,  we  can 
discuss  only  the  most  notable  and  important.  But 
first,  that  we  may  have  at  hand  a  reliable,  critical 
standard  wherewith  to  test  the  validity  or  invalidity 
of  the  various  theories,  we  maintain  that  a  sound  and 
satisfactory  theory  must  satisfy  the  following  four 
conditions:  (1)  the  twofold  consecration  must  show 
not  only  the  relative,  but  also  the  absolute  moment  of 
sacrifice,  so  that  the  Mass  will  not  consist  in  a  mere 
relation,  but  will  be  revealed  as  in  itself  a  real  sacrifice ; 
(2)  the  act  of  sacrifice  (<ictio  8acnfica)f  veiled  in  the 
double  consecration,  must  refer  directly  to  the  sacri- 
ficial matter — ^i.  e.  the  Eucharistic  Christ  Himself — 
not  to  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  or  their  unsub- 
stantial species;  (3)  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  must  some- 
how result  in  a  kenosis,  not  in  a  glorification,  since  this 
latter  is  at  most  tiie  object  of  the  sacrifice,  not  the 
sacrifice  itself;  (4)  since  this  postulated  kenosis,  how- 
ever, can  be  no  real,  but  only  a  mystical  or  sacramen- 
tal one,  we  must  appraise  intelligently  those  moments 
which  approximate  in  any  degree  the  "mystical  slay- 
ing" to  a  real  exinanition,  instead  of  rejecting  them, 
mth  the  aid  of  these  four  criteria  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  arrive  at  a  decision  concerning  the  probability 
or  otherwise  of  the  different  theories  concerning  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 

(i)  The  Jesuit  Gabriel  Vasques,  whose  theory  was 
supported  by  Perrone  in  the  last  century,  reauires  for 
the  essence  of  an  absolute  sacrifice  only — ana  thus,  in 
the  present  case,  for  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross — a  true 
destruction  or  the  real  slaying  of  Christ,  whereas  for 
the  idea  of  the  relative  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  it  suffices 
that  the  former  slaying  on  the  Cross  be  visibly  repre- 
sented in  the  separation  of  Body  and  Blood  on  the 
altar.  This  view  soon  found  a  keen  critic  in  Cardinal 
de  Lugo,  who,  appealing  to  the  Tridentine  definition 
of  theMaaa  as  a  true  and  proper  sacrifice,  upbraided 
Vasqoes  for  reducing  the  Afass  to  a'  purely  relative 
saermce.  Were  Jephta  to  arise  again  to-dav  with  his 
daughter  from  the  grave,  he  argues  (De  Euchar.,  disp. 
xix,  sect.  4,  n.  58),  and  present  oeforo  our  e^es  a  living 
diwnatic  reproduction  of  the  slaying  of  his  daughter 


after  the  fashion  of  a  tragedy,  we  woiild  undoubtedly 
see  before  us  not  a  true  sacrifice,  but  a  historic  or 
dramatic  representation  of  the  former  bloody  sacrifice. 
Such  may  indeed  satisfv  the  notion  of  a  relative  sacri- 
fice, but  certainly  not  the  notion  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,  which  includes  in  itself  both  the  relative  and  the 
absolute  (in  opposition  to  the  merely  relative)  sacrifi- 
cial moment.  If  the  Mass  is  to  be  something  more 
than  an  Ober-Ammer^u  Passion  Play,  then  not  only 
must  Christ  appear  in  His  real  personality  on  the  altar, 
but  He  must  also  be  in  some  manner  really  sacrificed 
on  that  very  altar.  The  theory  of  Vasques  thus  fails 
to  fulfil  the  first  condition  which  we  have  named 
above. 

To  a  certain  extent  the  opposite  of  Vasquez's  theory 
is  that  of  Cardinal  Cienfuegos,  who,  while  exaggerating 
the  absolute  moment  of  the  Mass,  imdervalues  the 
equally  essential  relative  moment  of  the  sacrifice.  The 
sacrificial  destruction  of  the  Eucharistic  (Christ  he 
would  find  in  the  voluntary  suspension  of  the  powers 
of  sense  (especially  of  sight  and  hearing),  which  the 
sacramental  mode  of  existence  implies,  and  which  lasts 
from  the  consecration  to  the  mingling  of  the  two  Spe- 
cies. But,  apart  from  the  fact  that  one  may  not  con- 
stitute a  hypothetical  theologumenon  the  basis  of  a 
theory,  one  can  no  longer  from  such  a  standpoint  suc- 
cessfully defend  the  mdispensabiiity  of  the  double 
consecration.  Equally  difficult  is  it  to  find  in  the 
Eucharistic  Christ's  voluntary  surrender  of  his  sensi- 
tive functions  the  relative  moment  of  sacrifice,  i.  e.  the 
representation  of  the  bloody  sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 
The  standpoint  of  Suarez,  adopted  by  Scheeben,  is 
both  exalting  and  imposing;  the  real  transformation 
of  the  sacrificial  gifts  he  refers  to  the  destruction  of  the 
Eucharistic  elements  (in  virtue  of  the  transubstantia- 
tion)  at  their  conversion  into  the  Precious  Bod^  and 
Blood  of  Christ  (immutatio  vej^ectiva),  just  as,  m  the 
sacrifice  of  incense  in  the  Ola  Testament,  the  grains  of 
incense  were  transformed  by  fire  into  the  higher  and 
more  precious  form  of  the  sweetest  odour  and  frar 
grance.  But,  since  the  antecedent  destruction  of  the 
substance  of  oread  and  wine  can  by  no  means  be  re- 
garded as  the  sacrifice  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ,  Suarez  is  finally  compelled  to  identify  the  sub- 
stantial production  of  the  Eucharistic  Victim  with  the 
sacrificing  of  the  same.  Herein  is  straightway  re- 
vealed a  serious  weakness,  already  clearly  perceived 
by  De  Lugo.  For  the  production  of  a  thing  can  never 
be  identical  with  its  sacrifice;  otherwise  one  might 
declare  tiie  gardener's  production  of  plants  or  the 
farmer's  raising  of  cattle  a  sacrifice.  Thus,  the  idea  of 
kenosis,  which  in  the  minds  of  all  men  is  intimately 
linked  with  the  notion  of  sacrifice,  and  which  we  have 
given  above  as  our  third  condition,  is  wanting  in  the 
theory  of  Suarez.  To  offer  something  as  a  sacrifice 
always  means  to  divest  oneself  of  it,  even  though  tlus 
self-divestment  may  finally  lead  to  exaltation. 

In  Germany  theprofound,  but  poorly  developed 
theory  of  Valentin  Tnalhofer  found  great  favour.  We 
need  not,  however,  develop  it  here,  especially  since  it 
rests  on  the  false  basis  of  a  supposed  "  neavenly  sacri- 
fice" of  Christ,  which,  as  the  virtual  continuation  of 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  becomes  a  temporal  and 
spatial  phenomenon  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  But, 
as  practically  all  other  theologians  teach,  the  existence 
of  this  heavenly  sacrifice  (in  the  strict  sense)  is  only  a 
beautiful  theological  dream,  and  at  any  rate  caimot  be 
demonstrated  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

(ii)  Disavowing  the  above-mentioned  theories  con- 
cerning the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  theologians  of  to-day 
are  again  seeking  a  closer  approximation  to  the  pre- 
Tridentine  conception,  having  realized  that  post- 
Tridentine  theology  had  perhaps  for  polemical  reasons 
needlessly  exaggerated  the  idea  of  aestruction  in  the 
sacrifice.  The^^Mmtt||jipn,  which  our  catechinxis 
even  to-day  ifl^lHII^UHMB^  ^  ^^  ^^^  ^^t- 
uralaod'  ^■iMi^y  declared  tli0 


BIA88 


16 


BIA88 


I>atristic  and  traditional  view;   its  restoration  to  a 

Sjsition  of  general  esteem  is  the  service  of  Father 
illot  (De  sacram.,  I,  4th  ed.,  Rome,  1907,  pp.  567 
saq.).  Since  this  theory  refers  the  absolute  moment 
Of  sacrifice  to  the  (active)  *'  sacramental  mystical  slay- 
ing", and  the  relative  to  the  (passive)  *' separation  of 
Body  and  Blood  ",  it  has  indeed  made  the  '^ two-edged 
Bword"  of  the  double  consecration  the  cause  from 
which  the  double  character  of  the  Mass  as  an  absolute 
(real  in  itself)  and  relative  sacrifice  i)roceeds.  We 
have  an  absolute  sacrifice,  for  the  Victim  is — ^not  in- 
deed in  specie  propria,  but  in  specie  aliena — sacramen- 
tally  slain;  we  have  also  a  relative  sacrifice,  since  the 
sacramental  separation  of  Body  and  Blood  represents 
^ptibly  the  former  shedding  of  Blood  on  the 


While  this  view  meets  every  requirement  of  the 
metaphysical  nature  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Maas,  we 
do  not  think  it  right  to  reject  offhand  the  somewhat 
more  elaborate  theory  of  Lessius  instead  of  utilizing  it 
in  the  spirit  of  the  traditional  view  for  the  extension  of 
the  idea  of  a  ''mystical  slaving ".  Lessius  (De  perfect, 
moribusque  div.,  XII,  xiii)  goes  beyond  the  old  ex- 
planation by  adding  the  not  untrue  observation  that 
the  intrinsic  force  of  liie  double  consecration  would 
have  as  result  an  actiial  and  true  shedding  of  blood  on 
the  altar,  if  this  were  not  per  accidens  impossible  in 
consequence  of  the  impassibility  of  the  transfigured 
Body  of  Christ.  Since  ex  vi  verhorum  the  consecration 
of  the  bread  makes  reallypresent  only  the  Body,  and 
the  consecration  of  the  Cnalice  only  the  Blooia,  the 
tendencv  of  the  double  consecration  is  towards  a  for- 
mal exclusion  of  the  Blood  from  the  Body.  The  mys- 
tical slaving  thus  approaches  nearer  to  a  real  destruc- 
tion and  the  absolute  sacrificial  moment  of  the  Mass 
receives  an  important  confim^tion.  In  the  light  of 
this  view,  the  celebrated  statement  of  St.  Gregory  of 
Nasianxus  becomes  of  special  importance  (*'  Ep.  clxxi, 
ad  Amphil."  in  P.  G.,  XXXVII,  282):  "Hesitate  not 
to  pray  for  me  .  .  .  when  with  bloodless  stroke 
[duai/idirry  ro/ii]  thou  separatest  [rifivtis]  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  tne  Lord,  naving  speech  as  a  sword 
l^piip  Mx"^^  '^  ('0o>]-''  As  an  old  pupil  of  Cardinal 
Franselin  (De  Euchar.,  p.  II,  thes.  xvi,  Rome,  1887), 
the  present  writer  may  perhaps  speak  a  good  word  for 
the  once  popular,  but  recently  combatted  theonr  of 
Cardinal  De  Lugo,  which  Framselin  revived  after  a  long 
period  of  neglect;  not  however  that  he  intends  to 
proclaim  the  theory  in  its  present  form  as  entirely 
satisfactory,  since,  with  much  to  recommend  it,  it  has 
also  serious  defects.  We  believe,  however,  that  this 
theory,  like  that  of  Lessius,  might  be  most  profitably 
utilised  to  develop,  supplement,  and  deepen  the  tradi- 
tional view.  Starting  from  the  principle  that  the 
Eucharistic  destruction  can  be,  not  a  physical,  but 
only  a  moral  one,  De  Liigo  finds  this  exinamtion  in  the 
voluntary  reduction  of  Christ  to  the  condition  of  food 
{reducHo  ad  statum  cibi  et  potus),  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Saviour,  after  the  fashion  of  lifeless  food,  leaves  him- 
self at  the  mercy  of  mankind.  That  this  is  really 
equivalent  to  a  true  kenosis  no  one  can  deny.  Herein 
the  Christian  pulpit  has  at  its  disposal  a  truly  inex- 
haustible source  of  lofty  thoughts  wherewith  to  illus- 
trate in  glowing  language  the  humility  and  love,  the 
destitution  and  defencelessness  of  Our  Saviour  under 
the  sacramental  veil,  His  magnanimous  submission  to 
Irreverence,  dishonour,  and  sacrilege,  and  wherewith 
to  emphasise  that  even  to-day  that  nre  of  self-sacrifice, 
which  once  burned  on  the  Cross,  still  sends  forth  its 
tongues  of  flame  in  a  mysterious  manner  from  the 
Heart  of  Jesus  to  our  altars.  While,  in  this  incompre- 
hensible condescension,  the  absolute  moment  of  sacri- 
fice is  disclose  in  an  especially  striking  manner,  one 
is  reluctantly  compelled  to  recognise  tne  absence  of 
two  of  the  other  requisites:  in  the  first  place,  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  double  consecration  is  not  rnade  properly 
apparent,  since  a  single  consecration  would  suffice  to 


produce  the  condition  of  food,  and  would  therefore 
achieve  the  sacrifice;  secondlv,  the  reduction  to  the 
state  of  articles  of  food  reveals  not  Uie  faintest  anal- 
ogy to  the  blood-shedding  on  the  Cross,  and  thus  the 
relative  moment  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  not 
properly  dealt  with.  De  Lugo's  theonr  seems,  there- 
fore, of  no  service  in  this  connexion,  tt  renders,  how- 
ever, the  most  useful  service  in  extending  the  tra- 
ditional idea  of  a  "mystical  slaying",  since  indeed 
the  reduction  of  Christ  to  food  is  and  purports  to  be 
nothixi|^  else  than  the  preparation  of  the  mystically 
slain  Victim  for  the  sacrificial  feast  in  the  Communion 
of  the  priest  and  the  faithfuL 

Conceminc  meareh  in  history  of  rdiskms  ne  Anuch,  Da» 
afi|iib«  Mytienenwtaen  m  weinem  Binfiun  auf  daa  ChrUUmlum 
(G6ttingea,  1804):  HzmiOLLBB,  Tauft  u.  AbtndmahlbeiPatdua 
(Q6ttixkgen,  1904):  Andbrsen,  Dm  Abeniknahl  in  dtn  noei 
trtttfi  Jahrh,  n.  Chr.  (2nd  ed.,  Giwen,  1006);  BAMonicAinr, 
UebBT  Reform  dt»  AbendmahUa  (TabinMn,  1004) ;  O.  HoLRMAMir, 
Dob  Abendmahl  tm  UrchriaUntum  in  ZeiUehr.  fUr  neuUatamemO. 
WiuoMchafi  (1904).  204  sqq.;  Dexumann.  Lieht  xom  Ostm 
(Tabinsen,  1008);  Gbffckbn,  A%u  der  Wtrdaeii  det  CkriMUn- 
haiu  (Leipiis,  1004);  Clmmkh,  DU  rtliaian^fteh.  Mtikodm  in 
der  ThmL  (Bonn,  1004);  Idbm,  RtliqionaatacK,  ErkUknma  dem  N. 
T.  (GieHen«  1009) ;  RiviLLB  J[^  ongmta  de  rEuekariaUe  (Paria, 
1008).     For  an  answer  to  Radicalum  ne  Rahlbivbbcx,  DU 
EinMdauna  dtr  TauU  u.  de»  AbendmahU  u,  die  modeme  KriHk 
(GOteralon,  1007):  BiOUBS,  Die  modeme  proL  AbendtnakUfiff 
aehwuf  (Txier,  1010);  GOn.  DiekeuHoe  AbendmahUfm  in  ihrer 
ffeaehu:htL  Entwicklung  (2nd  ed.,  Leipiis,  1006).     Gonceminc 
the  Anglican  view  see  Gobb,  The  Bo<nf  ofChriM  (5th  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1007);  Nbwbolt,  The  Sacrameni  of  the  Attar  ^iondon, 
1008).     Conoeminc  the  nature  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Maaa,  ef. 
TON  Labaulx,  Dae  8€knopfer  der  Oriechma  u.  R6mer  «.  ikr  Vm^ 
hAUnie  bu  dem  ei$%en  aufGoigaiha  (WOnbuis,  1841):  BRumt- 
RUCBBii,  Die  Sakramente  u.  doe  hL  Meeeopfer  (Schaffhauaen, 
1860);  Tankbr,  Cruenhim  Chriaii  eaerifieiiim,inertienhan  Mie- 
em  eaeri/ieiwH  explieaium  (Prague,  1660);  CtmnwtQom,  K«ta 
abeetmdUa  aub  apeeiebua  veUUa  (Rome,  1728);  WaaTXRicATB, 
Die  Meaae  in  ihran  Weeen  oder  daa  veMArte  Kreuaeeopfer  (Ratas- 
bon,  1868) ;  Thaiaopbb,  Daa  Ovfer  deaA,u,N.  Bundea  (Ratis- 
bon,  1870);  I>ibpolobr.  Daa  Weaen  daa  euehariaL  OpUra  u.  die 
vortQ4^iehen  kath.  Theotogen  der  drei  IcMcn  Jahrh,  ^kti^Mm, 
1877);    ScBWANB,    Die   euehariaL    Opferhandluno    (Freibuig, 
1880):  HuMPBRBT,  The  One  Mediator  or  Sacrifice  and  Sacra- 
ment (London,  1890);  Vacant,  Hiat.  de  la  Conception  du  Sacrir 
fieedela  Meaae  done  VBpUae  latine  (Pazis,  1804);  van  Wbbsch, 
Daa  hi.  Mvmofj^er  m  seiner  Weoenhai  tt.  tn  aemer  FeUr  (St: 


bun,  1805);  (^barrb.  La  Saerifiee  de  rHomme-Dieu  (Paris. 
1800) ;  ScHBBBBN,  Die  Myaterien  dee  Chrialentwna,  172  (2nd  ed.. 
Freibuxg.  1808);  G&ibmann.  Daa  euehariti,  Ojtjer  nach  der 
Lehre  der  iUteren  SeholaaHk  (Fraibuif,  1001);  Hbinbxch-Gut- 
bbrlbt.  Dogmat.  Theol.,  IX  (Mama,  1001) ;  Rbnb.  Die  Oeack,  dee 
Meeeopferbeifriffee  oder  der  alte  Olaube  u.  die  neuen  Theorien 
Hber  daa  Weaen  dea  unUutiqen  Op/era  (2  vols.,  Freisinf ,  1001-3); 
MoRiTiiBR,  The  Eueharialic  Saaylce,  An  kiatoriooT  and  theo' 
logical  Jnveatiaaiion  of  the  SaerQieial  Conception  of  the  Hohi 
Euchariat  m  the  Catholic  Church  (Loudon,  1001). 

(3)  The  Causality  of  the  Mass. — ^In  this  section  we 
shfiill  treat:  (a)  the  efifects  (effechis)  of  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass,  which  practically  coincide  with  the  various 
ends  for  which  the  Sacrifice  is  offered,  namely  adora* 
tion,  thanksgiving,  impetration,  and  expiation:  ^b) 
the  manner  of  its  efficacy  {modtts  effidendi),  which  lies 
in  part  objectively  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  itaelf 
(ex  opere  aperato),  and  partly  depends  subjectively  on 
the  personal  devotion  and  piety  of  man  (ex  opere  op^ 
rantis), 

(a)  The  Effects  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.— The 
Reformers  found  themselves  compelled  to  reject  en- 
tirely the  Sacrifice  of  the  Blass,  since  they  recognised 
the  Eucharist  merely  as  a  sacrament.  Both  their 
views  were  founded  on  the  reflection,  properly  ap- 
praised above,  that  the  Bloody  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross 
was  the  sole  Sacrifice  of  Christ  and  of  Christendom, 
and  thus  does  not  admit  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
As  a  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  in  the  sym- 
bolical or  figurative  sense,  they  had  earlier  approved 
of  the  Mass,  and  Melanchtnon  resented  the  charge  that 
Protestants  had  entirely  abolished  it.  What  they 
most  bitterly  opposed  was  the  Catholic  doctrine  that 
the  Mass  is  a  sacrifice  not  only  of  praise  and  thanka- 
giving,  but  also  of  impetration  and  atonement,  whose 
fruits  may  benefit  others,  while  it  is  evident  that  a 
sacrament  as  such  can  profit  merely  the  recipient. 
Here  the  Council  of  Trent  inteiposed  with  a  definition 
of  faith  (Sess.  XXII,  can.  iii) :  ^  If  any  one  saith,  that 


MASS                                    17  BCASS 

the  MasB  is  only  a  sacrifioe  of  praiae  and  thanksgiving  had  their  prototype  among  the  primitive  ChrisUao^ 
....  but  not  a  propitiatory  sacrifioe;  or,  that  it  prof-  and  for  this  view  we  likewise  find  other  testimonies — 
its  only  the  recipient,  and  that  it  ought  not  to  be  of-  e.  g.  Tertullian  (De  Cor.,  iii)  and  Cyprian  (£p.  ^'^^^ 
fered  for  the  living  and  the  dead  for  sins,  punishments,  n.  3).  By  a  Samt's  Blass  is  meant,  not  the  offering 
satisfactions,  and  other  necessities;  let  him  be  anath-  up  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  a  saint,  which  would 
ema"  (I>ensineer,  n.  950).  In  this  canon,  which  be  impossible  without  most  shameful  idolatry,  but  a 
gives  a  summary  of  all  the  sacrificial  effects  in  order,  sacrifice,  which^  while  offered  to  God  alone,  on  the  one 
the  synod  emphasises  the  propitiatory  and  impetra-  hand  thanks  Hun  for  the  triumphal  coronation  of  the 
torv  nature  of  the  sacrifice.  Propitiation  (propmaHo)  saints,  and  on  the^  other  aims  at  procuring  for  us  the 
and  petition  (impetraiio)  are  distmguishable  from  each  saint's  efficacious  intercession  witn  God.  Such  is  the 
other,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  appeals  to  the  goodness  authentic  explanation  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (So». 
and  the  former  to  the  mercy  of  God.  Naturally,  XXII,  cap.  iii,  in  Densinger,  n.  941).  With  this 
therefore,  they  differ  also  as  regards  their  objects,  threefoldlunitation,  Masses*' in  honour  of  the  saints" 
since,  while  petition  is  directed  towards  our  spiritual  are  certainly  no  base  *' deception",  but  are  morallv  al- 
and temporal  concerns  and  needs  of  every  kind,  propi-  lowable,  as  the  Council  of  Trent  specifically  dedares 
tiation  refers  to  our  sins  (veccata)  and  to  the  temporal  (loo.  dt.,  can.  v) ;  "  If  any  one  saith,  that  it  is  an  im- 
punishments  (posme),  wnich  must  be  expiated  b^  posture  to  celebrate  masses  in  honour  of  the  saints, 
works  of  penance  or  satisfaction  {saHafacUoneB)  in  this  and  for  obtaining  their  intercession  with  God,  as  the 
life,  or  otnerwise  by  a  corresponding  suffering  in  Pur^  Church  intends,  let  him  be  anathema  ".  The  general 
gatory.  In  all  these  respects  the  impetratoiy  and  ex-  moral  permissibility  of  invoking  the  intercession  of  the 
piatory  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  of  the  greatest  utility,  saints,  concerning  which  this  is  not  the  place  to  speak, 
Doth  for  the  living  and  the  dead.  is  of  course  assumed  in  the  present  instance. 

Should  a  Biblical  foundation  for  the  Tridentine  doo-  While  adoration  and  thanksgiving  are  effects  of  the 

trine  be  asked  for,  we  might  first  of  all  argue  in  gen-  Mass  which  relate  to  God  alone,  the  success  of  impe- 

era  las  follows:  Just  as  there  were  in  the  Old  Testament,  tration  and  expiation  on  the  other  hand  reverts  to 

in  addition  to  sacrifices  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  man.    These  last  two  effects  are  thus  also  called  by 

propitiatory  and  impetratory  sacrifices  (cf.  Lev.,  iv  theologians  the  ''fruits  of  the  Mass"  ^fnuitia  misscB), 

sqq.;  II  Kmgs,  xxiv,  21  sqo.,  etc.),  the  New  Testa-  and  this  distinction  leads  us  to  the  discussion  of  the 

ment,  as  its  antitype,  must  also  have  a  sacrifice  which  difficult  and  frequently  asked  question  as  to  whether 

serves  and  suffices  for  all  these  objects.    But,  accord-  we  are  to  impute  infinite  or  finite  value  to  the  Sacrifice 

ing  to  the  prophecy  of  Malachias,  this  is  the  Mass,  of  the  Blass.    This  question  is  not  of  the  kind  which 

which  is  to  De  celebrated  by  the  Church  in  all  places  may  be  answered  witli  a  simple  yes  or  no.    For,  apart 

and  at  all  times.    Consequently,  the  Mass  is  the  im-  from  the  already  indicated  oistinction  between  adora- 

petratory  and  propitiatory  sacrifice.    As  for  special  tion  and  thanksgiving  on  the  one  hand  and  impetra- 

reference  to  the  propitiatory  character,  the  record  of  tion  and  expiation  on  the  other,  we  must  also  sharply 

institution  states  expressly  that  the  Blood  of  Christ  is  distinguish  between  the  intrinsic  and  the  extrinsic 

shed  in  the  chaUce    unto  remission  of  sins"  (Matt.,  value  of  the  Mass  {valor  intrinaecus,  eoctririMciu),    As 

xxvi,  28).                                   ^  for  its  intrinsic  value,  it  seems  beyond  doubt  that,  in 

The  chief  source  of  our  doctrine,  however,  is  tradi-  view  of  the  infinite  worth  of  Christ  as  the  Victim  and 

tion,  which  from  the  earliest  times  declares  the  impe-  High  Priest  in  one  Person,  the  sacrifice  must  be  re- 

tratory  value  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.    Accordmg  garaed  as  of  infinite  value,  just  as  the  sacrifice  of  tiie 

to  Tertullian  (Ad  scapul.,  ii),  the  Christians  sacrificed  Last  Supper  and  that  of  the  Cross.    Here,  however, 

"for  the  welfare  of  tne  emperor"  (pro  salute  impera^  we  must  once  more  strongl]^  emphasize  the  fact  that 

Unis);  according  to  Chrysostom  (Hom.  xxi  in  Act.  the  ever-continued  sacrificial  activity  of  Christ  in 

Apost..  n.  4),  "for  the  fruits  of  the  earth  and  other  Heaven  does  not  and  cannot  serve  to  accumulate 

needs   .    St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  386)  describes  the  fresh  redemptory  merits  and  to  assume  new  objective 

liturgy  of  the  Mass  of  his  day  as  follows  {"  Catech.  value;  it  simply  stamps  into  current  coin,  so  to  speak, 

myst/',  V,  n.  8,  in  P.  G.,  XXaIII,  1115):  "After the  the  redemptory  merits  definitively  and  perfectly  ob- 

spiritual  sacrifice  [wwmfiarucii  9wtd],  the  unbloody  ser-  tained  in  tne  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  and  sets  them  into 

vice  [dptklsiaKTos  Xarptla]  is  completed ;  we  pray  to  God  circulation  among  mankind.    This  also  is  the  teaching 

over  this  sacrifice  of  propitiation  [4vl  r^  Svatat  Udinit  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  ii) : "  Of  which 

rov  IXa^/100]  for  Uie  umversal  peace  of  the  churches,  for  blood v  oblation  the  fruits  are  most  abundantly  ob- 

the  proper  guidance  of  the  world,  for  the  emperor,  sol-  tained  through  this  unbloody  one  [the  Mass]."    For. 

diers  and  companions,  for  the  infirm  and  the  sick,  for  even  in  its  character  of  a  sacrifice  of  adoration  ana 

those  stricken  with  trouble,  and  in  general  for  all  in  thanksgiving,  the  Mass  draws  its  whole  value  and  all 

need  of  help  we  pray  and  offer  up  this  sacrifice  [ra&nfp  its  power  only  from  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  which 

vpoa^poftgp  r^r  $vfftdp].    We  then  commemorate  the  Chnst  makes  of  unceasing  avail  in  Heaven  (cf .  Rom., 

patriar^,  prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  that  God  may,  viii,  34;  Heb.^  vii,  25).    There  is,  however,  no  reason 

at  their  prayers  and  mtercession,  graciously  accept  our  why  this  intnnsic  value  of  the  Blass  derived  from  ths 

supplication.    We  afterwards  pray  for  the  deaa  .  •  .  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  in  so  far  as  it  represents  a  sacri- 

sinoe  we  believe  that  it  will  be  of  the  greatest  advan-  fice  of  adoration  and  thanksgiving,  should  not  also 

tage  [ft^yl^ryfp  6innffip  Uw9ai]^  if  we  in  the  sight  of  the  operate  outwardly  to  the  full  extent  of  its  infinity,  for 

holy  and  most  awesome  Victim  [r^  Ay  tat  koX  ^puaadw"  it  seems  inconceivable  that  the  Heavenly  Father  could 

rdnfff  Bwtas]  discharge  our  prayers  for  them.    The  accept  with  other  than  infinite  satisfaction  the  sacri- 

Christ,  who  was  slain  for  our  sins,  we  sacrifioe  [Xpiffrbp  fice  of  His  only  begotten  Son.    Consequentlv  God,  as 

iff^yftdwop  ^kp  tQp  iifinifittp  A/Mprjiftdnap  vpoffi>4pofigp],  Malachias  had  alr^Eidy  prophesied,  is  in  a  trulv  infinite 

to  propitiate  the  merdfiU  God  for  those  who  are  gone  degree  honoured,  glorified,  and  praised  in  the  Mass; 

before  and  for  ourselves."    This  beautiful  passage,  through  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  he  is  thanked  by  men 

whidi  reads  like  a  modem  prayer-book,  is  of  interest  for  all  His  benefits  in  an  infinite  manner,  in  a  manner 

in  more  than  one  connexion.    It  proves  in  the  first  worthy  of  God. 

place  that  Christian  antiquity  recognised  the  offering  But  when  we  turn  to  the  Mass  as  a  sacrifice  of  im- 

up  of  the  Mass  for  the  deceased,  exactly  as  the  Chureh  petration  and  expiation,  the  case  is  different.  ^  While 

tCHlay  recognises  requiem  Masses — a  fact  which  is  we  must  always  regard  its  intrinsic  value  as  infinite, 

confirmed  by  other  independent  witnesses,  e.  g.  Tertul-  since  it  is  the  sacrifioe  of  the  God-Man  Himself,  its  ex- 

lian  (De  r                v    ^      .       ^^     •     ..   _    «v    __j  >._•    •       i            l               h..  i„  ^_ix- .• 

Augustine 
informs  us 

X.— 2 


18 


MAM 


wood  cannot  collect  within  it  the  wh<Ae  energy  of  the 
9un,  80  also,  and  in  a  still  greater  degree,  is  man  in- 
capable of  converting  the  boundless  value  of  the  im- 
petratoiy  and  expiatory  sacrifice  into  an  infinite  effect 
tor  his  soul.  Wherefore,  in  practice,  the  impetrsttory 
value  of  the  sacrifice  is  always  as  limited  as  is  its  pro- 
pitiatory and  satisfactory  value.  The  greater  or  less 
measure  of  liie  fruits  derived  will  naturally^  depend 
very  much  on  the  personal  efforts  and  worthmess,  the 
devotion  and  fervour  of  those  who  celebrate  or  are 
present  at  Mass.  This  limitation  of  the  fruits  of  the 
Mass  must,  however,  not  be  misconstrued  to  mean  that 
the  presence  of  a  large  congregation  causes  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  benefits  derived  from  the  Sacrifice  by  the 
individual,  as  if  such  benefits  were  after  some  fashion 
divided  into  so  many  aliauot  parts.  Neither  the  Church 
nor  the  Christian  people  has  anv  tolerance  for  the 
false  principle:  "The  less  the  nimiDer  of  the  faithful  in 
the  cnurch,  the  richer  the  fruits".  On  the  contrary, 
the  Bride  of  Christ  desires  for  every  Mass  a  crowded 
church,  being  rightly  convinced  that  from  the  unlim- 
ited treasures  of  the  Mass  much  more  grace  will  result 
to  the  individual  from  a  service  participated  in  by  a 
full  congregation,  than  from  one  attended  merely  by  a 
few  of  the  faithful.  This  relative  infinite  value  refers 
indeed  only  to  the  general  fruit  of  the  Mass  (fructua 
generalis)^  and  not  to  the  spedal  (fructus  specudis) — 
two  terms  whose  distinction  will  be  more  clearly  char^ 
acterised  below.  Here,  however,  we  may  remark  that 
by  the  special  fruit  of  the  Mass  is  meant  that  for  the 
application  of  which  according  to  a  special  intention  a 
pnest  may  accept  a  stipend. 

The  ouestion  now  arises  whether  in  this  connexion 
the  applicable  value  of  the  Bfass  is  to  be  regarded  as 
finite  or  infinite  (or,  more  accurately,  unlimited). 
This  question  is  of  importance  in  view  of  the  practical 
consequences  it  involves.  For,  if  we  decide  m  favour 
of  the  unlimited  value,  a  single  Mass  celebrated  for  a 
hundred  persons  or  intentions  is  as  efficacious  as  a 
htmdred  Masses  celebrated  for  a  single  person  or  inten- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear  that,  if  we  incline 
towards  a  finite  value,  the  special  fruit  is  divided  pro 
rata  among  the  hundred  persons.  In  tJieir  quest  for  a 
solution  of  this  question,  two  classes  of  theologians  are 
distinguished  according  to  their  tendencies:  the  mi- 
nority (Gotti,  Billuart,  Antonio  Bellarini,  etc.)  are  in- 
clinea  to  uphold  the  certainty  or  at  least  the  probabil- 
itv  of  the  former  view,  arguing  that  the  infinite  dignity^ 
of  the  Hi^h  Priest  Christ  cannot  be  limited  by  the  n- 
nite  sacrificial  activity  of  his  human  representative. 
But,  since  the  Church  has  entirely  forbidden  as  a 
breach  of  strict  justice  that  a  priest  should  seek  to  ful- 
fil, by  reading  a  single  Blass,  the  obligations  imposed 
by  several  stipends  (see  Densinger,  n.  1110),  these 
theologians  hasten  to  admit  that  their  theory  is  not  to 
be  translated  into  practice,  unless  the  priest  applies  as 
many  individual  Masses  for  all  the  intentions  of  the 
stipend-given  as  he  has  received  stipends.  But  inas- 
much as  the  Church  has  spoken  of  strict  justice  (justC-' 
Ha  commtUaHva),  the  overwhelming  majority  of  theo- 
logians incline  even  theoretically  to  the  conviction  that 
the  satisfactory — and,  according  to  many,  also  the 
propitiatory  and  impetratory — value  of  a  Mass  for 
which  a  stipend  has  been  taken,  is  so  strictly  circum- 
scribed and  limited  from  the  outset,  that  it  accrues  pro 
rata  (according  to  the  greater  or  less  number  of  the 
living  or  the  dead  for  whom  the  Bfass  is  offered)  to  each 
of  ^e  individuals.  Only  on  such  a  hypothesis  is  the 
custom  prevailing  among  the  faithful  of  having  sev- 
eral Masses  celebrated  for  the  deceased  or  for  their  in- 
tentions intelligible.  Only  on  such  a  hypothesis  can 
one  explain  tSs  widely  established  "Msss  Associa- 
tion", a  pious  union  whose  members  voluntarily  bind 
themselves  to  read  or  get  read  at  least  one  Biass  annu- 
ally for  the  poor  souls  in  pui^tory.  As  early  as  the 
eighth  centiuy.  we  find  in  Germany  a  so-called  "  Toten- 
bund''  (see  Perti,  "Monum.  Oermani»  hist.:  Leg.", 


II,  i,  221).  But  probably  the  greatest  of  such  sooifr 
ties  IS  the  Messbund  of  Ingolstadt,  founded  in  1724;  it 
was  raised  to  a  confraternity  (Cionfratemitv  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception)  on  3  Feb.,  1874,  and  at  pres- 
ent counts  680,000  memben  (cf.  fieringer,  *'Die  Ab- 
Iflsse,  ihr  Wesen  u.  ihr  Gebrauch",  13Ui  ed.,  Fader- 
born,  1906,  pp.  610  sqq.).  Toumely  (De  Euch.  q. 
viii,  a.  6)  has  also  sought  in  favour  of  this  view  imfwr- 
tant  internal  grounds  of  probability^,  for  example  by 
adverting  to  the  visible  course  of  Divine  Providence: 
all  natural  and  supernatural  effects  in  general  are  aeen 
to  be  slow  and  gradual,  not  sudden  or  desultoiy, 
wherefore  it  is  also  the  most  holy  intention  of  God  that 
man  should,  W  his  personal  exertions,  strive  through 
the  medium  of  the  greatest  possible  number  of  Mfi^^^^g 
to  participate  in  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 
(b)  The  Manner  of  Efficacy  of  the  Mass. — In  theo- 
logical phrase  an  effect  **  from  the  work  of  the  action  " 
(ex  opere  opercUo)  signifies  a  grace  conditioned  exclu- 
sively by  the  objective  bringing  into  activity  of  a  cause 
of  the  supernatural  order,  in  connexion  with  which 
the  proper  disposition  of  the  subject  comes  subse- 
quently into  account  only  as  an  indispensable  ante- 
cedent condition  {amdiiio  nne  qua  non),  but  not  aa  a 
real  joint  cause  {concauaa).  Thus,  for  example,  bap- 
tism by  its  mere  ministration  produces  ex  opere  operato 
interior  grace  in  each  recipient  of  the  sacrament  who 
in  his  heart  opposes  no  obstacle  (obex)  to  the  reception 
of  the  graces  of  baptism.  On  the  other  hand,  all  su- 
pernatural effects,  which,  presupposing  ib»  state  of 
grace,  are  accomplished  by  the  personal  actions  and 
exertions  of  the  subject  (e.  g.  everything  obtained  by 
simple  praver),  are  called  effects  *'from  the  work  of 
the  agent  (ex  opere  overanHs).  We  are  now  con- 
fronted with  the  difficult  question:  In  what  manner 
does  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  accomplish  its  effects 
and  fruits?  As  the  early  scholastics  gave  scarcelv  any 
attention  to  this  problem,  we  are  indebted  for  almost 
all  the  lif  ht  thrown  upon  it  to  the  later  scholastics. 

(i)  It  IS  first  of  all  necessary  to  make  clear  that  in 
every  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  four  distinct  categories  of 
persons  really  participate.  At  the  head  of  au  stands 
of  course  the  High  Pnest,  Christ  Himself;  to  make  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Cross  fruitful  for  us  and  to  secure  its  ap- 
plication, He  offers  Himself  as  a  sacrifice,  which  is 
Suite  independent  of  the  merits  or  demerits  of  the 
hurch,  the  celebrant  or  the  faithful  present  at  the 
sacrifice,  and  is  for  these  an  opue  opiratum.  Next 
after  Christ  and  in  the  second  place  comes  the  Church 
as  a  juridical  person,  who,  according  to  the  express 
teaching  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Seas.  XXII,  cap.  i), 
has  received  from  the  hands  of  her  Divine  Founder  the 
institution  of  the  Mass  and  also  the  commission  to  or^ 
dain  constantly  priests  and  to  have  celebrated  by 
these  the  most  venerable  Sacrifice.  This  intermediate 
stage  between  Christ  and  the  celebrant  may  be  neither 
pa^ed  over  nor  eliminated,  since  a  bad  and  immoral 
priest,  as  an  ecclesiastical  official,  does  not  offer  up  his 
own  sacrifice — ^which  indeed  could  only  be  impure — 
but  the  immaculate  Sacrifice  of  Christ  and  his  spotless 
Bride,  which  can  be  soiled  b^  no  wickedness  of  the 
celebrant.  But  to  this  special  sacrificial  activity  of 
the  Church,  offering  up  the  sacrifice  together  with 
Christ,  must  also  correspond  a  special  ecclesiastioo- 
human  merit  as  a  fruit,  which,  although  in  itself  an 
opu8  operanHs  of  the  Church,  is  yet  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  worthiness  of  the  celeorant  and  the  faithful, 
and  therefore  constitutes  for  these  an  opus  operatum. 
When,  however,  as  De  Lufo  rightly  points  out,  an  ex- 
communicated or  suspended  priest  celebrates  in  defi« 
ance  of  the  prohibition  of  the  Church,  this  ecclesiasti- 
cal merit  is  always  lost,  since  such  a  priest  no  longer 
acts  in  the  name  and^  with  the  commission  of  the 
Church.  His  sacrifice  is  nevertheless  valid,  since,  by 
virtue  of  his  priestly  ordination,  he  celebrates  in  the 
name  of  C!hnst,  even  thotiffh  in  opposition  to  His 
wishes,  and,  as  the  self-sacrifice  of  Christ,  even  such  a 


BCA88 


19 


BIA88 


Haas  remains  essentially  a  spotless  and  untarnished 
■acrifice  before  God. 

We  are  thus  compelled  to  concur  in  another  view  of 
De  Lugo,  namely  that  the  greatness  and  extent  of  this 
ecclesiastical  service  is  dependent  on  the  greater  or  less 
holinc^ss  of  the  reigning  pope,  the  bishops,  and  the 
clsz^y  throughout  uxe  world,  and  that  for  tnis  reason 
in  times  of  ecclesiastical  decay  and  laxity  of  morals 
(especially  at  the  papal  court  and  among  the  episco- 

gate)  the  fruits  of  the  Mass,  resulting  from  the  sacri- 
cial  activity  of  the  Church,  mieht  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances easily  be  very  smaU.  With  Christ  and 
His  Church  is  associated  in  the  third  place  the  celebrat- 
ing priest,  since  he  is  the  representative  through 
whom  the  real  and  the  mystical  Christ  offer  up  the 
sacrifice.  If,  therefore,  the  celebrant  be  a  man  of 
grejit  personal  devotion,  holiness,  and  purity,  there 
will  accrue  an  additional  fruit  which  will  benefit  not 
himaeif  alone,  but  also  those  in  whose  favour  he  ap- 
plies the  Mass.  The  faithful  are  thus  guided  by  sound 
instinct  when  they  prefer  to  have  Mass  celebrated  for 
their  intentions  by  an  upright  and  holy  priest  rather 
than  by  an  unworthy  one,  since,  in  adaition  to  the 
chief  fruit  of  the  Mass,  they  secure  this  special  fruit 
which  springs  ex  apere  operantUj  from  the  piety  of  the 
celebrant. 

Finally,  in  4he  fourth  place,  must  be  mentioned 
those  who  participate  actively  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,  e.  g.  the  servers,  sacristan,  organist,  singers,  and 
the  whole  congregation  joining  in  the  sacrifice.  The 
priest,  therefore,  prays  also  in  their  name:  Offerimta 
(i.  e.  We  offer).  That  the  effect  resulting  from  this 
(metaphorical)  sacrificial  activity  is  entirely  depend- 
ent on  the  worthiness  and  piety  of  those  taking  part 
therein  and  thus  results  exclusively  ex  opere  operantis, 
is  evident  without  further  demonstration.  The  more 
fervent  the  pra^rer,  the  richer  the  fruit.  Most  inti- 
mate is  the  active  participation  in  the  Sacrifice  of 
those  who  receive  Holy  Communion  diving  the  Mass, 
since  in  their  case  the  special  fruits  of  the  (Communion 
are  added  to  those  of  tne  Mass.  Should  sacramental 
Communion  be  impossible,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXII,  cap.  vi)  advises  the  faithful  to  make  at  least  a 
*' spiritual  communion"  [spiriitudi  effectu  communi- 
care),  which  consists  in  the  ardent  aesire  to  receive 
the  Eucharist.  However,  as  we  have  already  empha- 
sised, the  omission  of  real  or  spiritual  Ck)mmunion  on 
the  part  of  the  faithful  present  does  not  render  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  either  invalid  or  unlawful,  where- 
fore the  Qiurch  even  permits  ''private  Masses'',  which 
mav  on  reasonable  grounds  be  celebrated  in  a  chapel 
with  closed  doors. 

(ii)  In  addition  to  the  active,  there  are  also  passive 
participators  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  These  are 
the  persons  in  whose  favour — ^it  may  be  even  without 
their  knowlcd^  and  in  opposition  to  their  wishes — ^the 
Holy  Sacrifice  is  offered.  They  fall  into  three  catego- 
ries: the  coQununity,  the  celebrant,  and  the  person  (or 
persons)  for  whom  the  Mass  is  specially  applied.  To 
each  of  these  three  classes  corresponds  ex  opere  operato 
a  special  fruit  of  the  Mass,  whether  the  same  be  an  im- 
petratory  effect  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Petition  or  a  propi- 
tiatory and  satisfactory  effect  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Ex- 
piation. Although  the  development  of  the  teaching 
concerning  the  threefold  fruit  of  the  Mass  begins  only 
with  Scotus  (Quffist.  quodlibet,  xx),  it  is  nevertheless 
based  on  the  very  essence  of  the  Sacrifice  itself.  Since, 
according  to  the  wording  of  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  (q. 
v.),  prayer  and  sacrifice  is  offered  for  all  those  present, 
the  whole  diurch,  the  pope,  the  diocesan  bishop,  the 
faithful  living  and  deaa,  and  even  "for  the  salvation 
of  the  whole  world",  there  must  first  of  all  result  a 
"general  fruit"  {Jructus  generalia)  for  all  mankind,  the 
bortowal  of  which  lies  immediately  in  the  will  of 
Christ  and  His  Church,  and  can  thus  be  frustrated  b^ 
no  contrary  Intention  of  the  celebrant.  In  this  fnut 
even  the  excommunicated,  heretics^  and  infidels  par- 


ticipate, mainly  that  their  conversion  may  thus  be  ef- 
fected. The  second  kind  of  fruit  (fructue  pereonalia, 
epecialiseimus)  falls  to  the  personal  share  of  the  cele- 
brant, since  it  were  unjust  that  he — apart  from  his 
wortfaihess  and  piety  {opus  operand)— should  come 
empty-handed  from  the  sacrifice.  Between  these  two 
frmts  lies  the  third,  the  so-called  "special  fruit  of 
the  Mass"  (fruchis  apecialis,  mediuSf  or  ministeriaUa), 
which  is  usually  applied  to  particular  living  or  de- 
ceased persons  accoitiing  to  the  intention  of  the  cele- 
brant or  the  donor  of  a  stipend.  This  "application " 
rests  so  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  priest  that 
even  the  prohibition  of  the  Church  cannot  render  it  in- 
efficacious, although  the  celebrant  would  in  such  a  case 
sin  through  disoTOdience.  For  the  existence  of  the 
special  fruit  of  the  Mass,  rightly  defended  by  Pius  VI 
against  the  Jansenistic  Synod  of  Pistoia  (1786),  we 
have  the  testimony  also  of  Christian  antiauity,  which 
offered  the  Sacrifice  for  special  persons  ana  intentions. 
To  secure  in  all  cases  the  certain  effect  of  this /ruclu« 
specialis,  Suarez  (De  Euch.,  disp.  Ixxix.  sect.  10)  gives 
priests  the  wise  advice  that  Hiey  should  always  add  to 
the  firsta ''  second  intention"  (irUenHo  eecunda),  which, 
should  the  first  be  inefficacious,  will  take  its  place. 

(iii)  A  last  and  an  entirely  separate  problem  is 
afforded  by  the  special  mode  of  efficacy  of  tne  Sacrifice 
of  Expiation.  As  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  ike  Mass  has 
the  double  fimction  of  obliterating  actual  sins,  espe- 
cially mortal  sins  (effecius  stride  propiHaloriue),  and 
also  of  taking  awav,  m  the  case  of  those  already  in  the 
state  of  grace,  such  temporal  punishments  as  may  stlQ 
remain  to  be  endured  (effecius  satis/actorius).  The 
main  question  is:  Is  this  double  effect  ex  opere  operato 
produced  mediately  or  immediately?  As  regards  the 
actual  forgiveness  of  sin,  it  must,  in  opposition  to  ear- 
lier theolo|;ians  ( Araron,  Casalis,  Greg;ory  of  Valentia), 
be  maintained  as  unaoubtedly  a  certain  principle,  that 
the  expiatory  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  can  never  accom- 
plish tne  forgiveness  of  mortal  sins  otherwise  than  by 
way  of  contrition  and  penance,  and  therefore  only 
mediately  throiigh  procuring  the  grace  of  conversion 
(cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIl,  cap.  ii:  "donum 
poenitentiffi  concedens").  With  this  limitation,  how- 
ever, the  Mass  is  able  to  remit  even  the  most  grievous 
sins  (Council  of  Trent,  1.  c,  "  Crimina  et  peccata  etiam 
ingentia  dimittit").  Since,  according  to  the  present 
economy  of  salvation,  no  sin  whatsoever,  grievous  or 
triffing,  can  be  forgiven  without  an  act  of  sorrow,  we 
must  confine  liie  emcacy  of  the  Mass,  even  in  the  case 
of  venial  sins,  to  obtaining  for  Christians  the  grace  of 
contrition  for  less  serious  sins  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i). 
It  is  indeed  this  purely  mediate  activity  which  consti- 
tutes the  essential  distinction  between  the  sacrifice 
and  the  sacrament.  Could  the  Mass  remit  sins  im- 
mediately ex  opere  operatOj  like  Baptism  or  Penance,  it 
would  be  a  sacrament  of  the  dead  and  cease  to  be  a 
sacrifice  (see  Sacrament).  Concerning  the  remission 
of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin,  however,  which 
appears  to  be  effected  in  an  immediate  manner,  our 
juo^ent  must  be  different.  The  reason  lies  in  the 
intrinsic  distinction  between  sin  and  its  punishment. 
Without  the  personal  co-operation  and  sorrow  of  the 
sinner,  all  foi^veness  of  sin  by  God  is  impossible;  this 
cannot  however  be  said  of  a  mere  remission  of  pimish- 
ment.  One  person  may  validly  discharge  the  debts  or 
fines  of  another,  even  without  apprising  the  debtor  of 
his  intention.  The  same  rule  may  be  applied  to  a  just 
person,  who,  after  his  justification,  is  still  burdened 
with  temporal  pimishment  consec^uent  on  his  sins.  It 
is  certain  that,  onlv  in  this  immediate  way,  can  assist- 
ance be  ^ven  to  the  poor  souls  in  pui^tory  through 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  since  they  are  henceforth 
powerless  to  perform  personal  works  of  satisfaction 
(cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXV,  de  purgat.).  From 
this  consideration  we  derive  b^  analogy  the  legiti- 
mate conclusion  that  the  case  is  exactly  the  same  as 
regards  the  living. 


MASS                                   20  MASS 

See  Bkllarminb.  De  Suc/mt.,  ji,  2  sqq.;  Sdaru,  d»  Buehar,,  already  name  "the  Lord's  day  ".  Justin  himself  seems 

IS5<i:rSy.frt'  i(rJ^l^J^fs^^^?l^^  to  be  ^y^  only  of  the  Suniiy  oelebnition.  but  Ter- 

Miata  (iBgoldstadt.  1620):  Q&nuAsv,  Dot  euehar.  Opfer  naeh  tullian  adds  the  fast-davs  On  Wednesday  and  Fnday 

der  l^re  der  aUerenSchoiaatik  (Jfreibui^.  1901).    ^K5s-  and  the  anniversaries  of  the  martyis  ("De  oor.  mil.  , 

ficedela  Meme  (Paris,  1873);  Specht.  Die  Wirkungm  det  eu-  paschal  Season  (until  Pentecost)  "one  long  feast",  we 

char.  Ovfern  (Aupbure.  1876) ;  M<;ller.  The  Holy  Mom,  the  Sae-  nxay  conclude  with  some  justice  that  during  this  period 

'^^S:^'S^ui^pi^^'S^'^.^jflbihLS^  the  faithful  not  only  communicated  dai^  butSrere 

BfklArunQ  dee  KL  Meeaopjen  (Dansic,   1892);  Rohauut  db  also  present  at  the  Euchanstic  Liturgy.    As  regards 

Fleurt.  LeeSaifUe  de  la  y««  (JO  v^..  Pans.  1893-^) :  Wai^  the  tune  of  the  day,  there  existed  in  the  Apostolic  afe 

TER,  ute  hi.  Mesee,  der  grdaale  SehaU  der  Wdt  (6th  ed.,  Bnxen,  -,-.  fi^*wl   w««#Mkv«4^a  vM^miwIlni*  ^Ka  t«o«i.  •»  «»l«:«»k  Tu^ 

1901);  OiHR.  Dae  hi.  Aeeeopfer  dogmoHech,  liiurffieeh  «.  o«e!  5?  fixed  ppccepts  regardmg  the  hOUr  at  whlch  the 

tiech  erkiAH  (10th  ed.»  Freiburg,  1907);  6th  ed.  tr.  (St.  Louis.  Eucharistic  celebration  should  take  place.    The  Apoe- 

^^^)-  tie  Paul  appears  to  have  on  occasion  "  broken  bruui  " 

about  midni^t  (Acts,  xx,  7) .   But  Pliny  the  Younger, 

B.  Practiad  Questiona  Concerning  the  Maes. — From  Governor  ofBithynia  (diea  a.  d.  114),  already  states 

the  exceedingly  high  valuation,  which  the  Church  in  his  official  report  to  Em^ror  Trajan  that  ti^e  Chria- 

places  on  the  Mass  as  the  unbloody  Sacrifice  of  the  tians  assembled  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  and 

God-Man,  issue,  as  it  were  spontaneously,  all  those  bound  themselves  by  a  eacramentum  (oath),  by  which 

practical  precepts  of  a  positive  or  a  negative  nature,  we  can  understand  to-day  only  the  celebration  of  the 

which  are  given  in  the  Rubrics  of  the  lAaas,  in  Canon  mysteries.    Tertullian  gives  as  the  hour  of  the  assem- 

Law,  and  in  Moral  Theology.    They  may  be  conven-  bly  the  time  before  dawn  (De  cor.  mil.,  iii:  antelucanis 

iently  divided  into  two  categories,  according  as  thev  catibua).    When  the  fact  was  adverted  to  that  the 

are  intended  to  secure  in  the  highest  degree  possible  Saviour's  Resurrection  occurred  in  the  morning  before 

the  objective  dignity  of  the  Sacrifice  or  the  subjective  sunrise,  a  change  of  the  hour  set  in,  the  celebration  of 

worthiness  of  the  celebrant.  Mass  being  postponed  until  this  time.    Hius  Cyprian 

(1)  Precepts  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Dignity  of  the  writes  of  the  Sunday  celebration  (Ep.,  Ixiii):  "We 

Sacrifice. — (a)  One  of  the  most  important  requisites  celebrate  the  Resurrection  of  the  Lord  in  the  mom- 

for  the  worthy  celebration  of  the  Mass  is  that  the  place  ing."    Since  the  fifth  century  the  "  third  hour"  (i.  e. 

in  which  the  all-holy  Mystery  is  to  be  celebrated,  9  a.  m.)  was  regarded  as  "canonical"  for  the  Solemn 

should  be  a  suitable  one.    Since,  in  the  days  of  the  Mass  on  Sundays  and  festivals.     When  the  Little 

Apostolic  Church,  there  were  no  churches  or  chapels.  Hours  (Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None)  began  in  the  Middle 

private  houses  with  suitable  accommodation  were  Ages  to  lose  their  significance  as  "canonical  hours", 

appointed  for  the  solemnization  of  "the   breaking  the  precepts  govermng  the  hour  for  the  conventual 

of  bread"  (cf.  Acts,  ii,  46;  xx,  7  sq.;  Col.,  iv,  15;  Mass  received  a  new  meaning.   Thus,  for  example,  the 

Philem.,  2).    During  the  era  of  the  persecutions  the  precept  that  the  conventual  Mass  should  be  held  after 

Eucharistic  services  in  Rome  were  transferred  to  the  None  on  fast  days  does  not  signify  that  it  be  held 

catacombs,  where  the  Christians  believed  themselves  between  midday  and  evening,  but  only  that  "  the 

secure  from  government  agents.    The  first  "houses  of  recitation  of  None  in  choir  is  followed  by  the  Mass". 

God"  reach  back  certainly  to  the  end  of  the  second  It  is  in  general  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  priest  to 

century,  as  we  learn  from  Tertullian  (Adv.  Valent.,  iii)  celebrate  at  any  hour  between  dawn  and  miaday  (ab 

and  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  i).    In  the  sec-  aurora  ueque  ad  meridiem).   It  is  proper  that  he  snould 

ond  half  of  the  fourth  century  (a.  d.  370),  Optatus  of  read  beforehand  Matins  and  Lauds  from  his  breviarv. 

Mileve  (De  Schism.  Donat.,  II,  iv)  could  already  The  sublimity  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  demanos 

reckon  more  than  forty  basilicas  which  adorned  the  that  the  priest  should  approach  the  altar  wearing  the 

city  of  Rome.    From  this  period  dates  the  prohibition  sacred  vestments  (amice,  stole,  cincture,  maniple,  and 

of  the  Synod  of  Laodicea  (can.  Iviii)  to  celebrate  Mass  chasuble).    WTiether  the  priestly  vestments  are  his- 

in  private  houses.    Thenceforth  the  public  churches  torical  developments  from  Judaism  or  pa^nism,  is  a 

were  to  be  the  sole  places  of  worship.    In  the  Middle  Question  still  discussed  by  archsologists.   In  any  case 

Ages  the  synods  granted  to  bishops  the  right  of  allow-  tne  "Canones  Hippolyti"  require  that  at  Pontifical 

ing  house-chapels  within  their  dioceses.    According  to  Mass  the  deacons  and  priests  appear  in  "white  vest- 

the  law  of  to-day  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  de  ments",  and  that  the  lectors  also  wear  festive  ^ar- 

reform.),  the  Mass  may  be  celebrated  only  in  chapels  ments.    No  priest  may  celebrate  Mass  without  hght 

and  public  (or  semi-public)  oratories,  which  must  be  (usually  two  candles),  except  in  case  of  uigent  neces- 

consecrated  or  at  least  blessed.    At  present,  private  sity  (e.  g.  to  consecrate  a  Host  as  the  Vatlcum  for  a 

chapels  may  be  erected  only  in  virtue  of  a  special  papal  person  seriously  ill) .    The  altar-cross  is  also  necessary 

indult  (S.  C.  C,  23  Jan.,  1847;  6  Sept.,  1870).    In  the  as  an  indication  that  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  noth- 

latter  case,  the  real  place  of  sacrifice  is  the  consecrated  ing  else  than  the  unbloodv  reproduction  'of  the  Sacri- 

altar  (or  altar-stone),  which  must  be  placed  in  a  suit-  fice  of  the  Cross.    Usually,  also,  the  priest  must  be 

able  room  (cf.  Missale  Romanum,  Rubr.  gen.,  tit.  xx).  attended  at  the  altar  by  a  server  of  the  male  sex.   The 

In  times  of  great  need  (e.  g.  war,  persecution  of  Cath-  celebration  of  Mass  without  a  server  is  allowed  onlv 

olics) ,  the  priest  may  celebrate  outside  the  church,  but  in  case  of  need  (e.  g.  to  procure  the  Viaticum  for  a  sick 

naturally  only  in  a  becoming  place,  provided  with  the  person,  or  to  enable  the  faithful  to  satisfy  their  obliga- 

most  necessary  utensils.    On  reasonable  grounds  the  tion  of  hearing  Mass).    A  person  of  the  female  sex  mav 

bishop  may,  in  virtue  of  the  so-called  "quinquennial  not  serve  at  the  altar  itself,  e.  g.  transfer  the  missal, 

faculties",  allow  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  tne  open  present  the  cruets,  etc.  (S.  R.  C.,  27  August,  1836). 

air,  but  the  celebration  of  Mass  at  sea  is  allowed  only  Women  (especially  nuns)  may,  however,  answer  the 

by  papal  indult.    In  such  an  indult  it  is  usually  pro-  celebrant  from  their  places,  if  no  male  server  be  at 

vided  that  the  sea  be  calm  during  the  celebration,  hand.    During  the  celebration  of  Mass  a  simple  priest 

and  that  a  second  priest  (or  deacon)  be  at  hand  to  may  not  wear  any  head-covering — whether  biretta, 

prevent  the  spilling  of  the  chalice  in  case  of  the  rock-  pileolus,  or  full  wig  (comcB  fictitue) — but  the  bishop 

mg  of  the  ship.  may  allow  him  to  wear  a  plain  pemique  as  a  protection 

(b)  For  the  worthy  celebration  of  Mass  the  circum-  for  his  hairless  scalp, 

stance  of  time  is  also  of  ^reat  importance.    In  the  (c)  To  preserve  untarnished  the  honour  of  the  most 

Apostolic  age  the  first  Christians  assembled  regularly  venerable  sacrifice,  the  Church  has  surrounded  with  a 

on  Sundays  for  "the  breaking  of  bread"  (Acts,  xx,  7:  strong  rampart  of  special  defensive  regulations  the  in- 

"on  the  first  day  of  the  week"),  which  day  the  *'Di-  stitution  of  "mass-stipends";  her  intention  is  on  the 

dache"  (o.xiv),  and  later  Justin  Martyr  (I  Apol.,lxvi),  one  hand  to  keep  remote  from  the  altar  all  base  ava- 


MASS                                  21  MASS 

rioe,  and  on  the  other  to  ensure  and  safeguard  the  right  oondltions  of  an  important  character  (e.  g.  the  ap- 
of  the  faithful  to  the  conscientious  celebration  of  the  pointed  day,  altar,  etc.)-  Should  some  obstacle 
Itlasses  bespoken.  By  a  mass-stipend  is  meailt  a  cer-  arise,  the  money  must  either  be  returned  to  the  donor, 
tain  monetary  offering  which  anyone  makes  to  the  or  a  substitute  procured.  In  the  latter  case,  the  sub- 
priest  with  the  accompanying  obligation  of  celebrating  stitute  must  be  given,  not  the  usual  stipend,  but  the 
a  Mass  in  accordance  with  the  intentions  of  the  donor  whole  offering  received  (cf.  Prop,  ix  damn.  1666  ab 
{ad  intenHonem  dantis).  The  obligation  incurred  con-  Alex.  VIII  in  Denzinger,  n.  1109),  unless  it  be  indis- 
sists,  concretely  speakinz,  in  the  application  of  the  putably  clear  from  the  circumstances  that  the  excess 
"  special  fruit  of  the  Mass  (fructus  spectailis),  the  na-  over  the  usual  stipend  was  meant  by  the  donor  for  the 
ture  of  which  we  have  already  descnbed  in  detail  (A,  first  priest  alone.  There  is  a  tacit  condition  which  re- 
.3).  The  idea  of  the  stipend  emanates  from  the  earli-  quires  the  reading  of  the  stipulated  Mass  as  soon  as 
est  ages,  and  its  justification  lies  incontestably  in  the  possible.  According  to  the  common  opinion  of  moral 
axiom  of  St,  Paul  (I  Cor.,  ix,  13) rj^' They  that  serve  the/  theologians,  a  postponement  of  two  months  is  in  less 
altar,  partake  with  the  altar ''^Originally  consisting  urgent  cases  admissible,  even  thou^  no  lawful  im- 
of  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  stipend  was  at  first  con-  pediment  can  be  brought  forward.  Should,  however, 
sidered  as  ''alms  for  a  Mass"  {eteemoayna  missarum),  a  priest  postpone  a  Mass  for  a  happy  delivery  until 
the  object  being  to  contribute  to  the  proper  support  of  after  the  event,  he  is  bound  to  retiun  the  stipend, 
the  clergy.  The  character  of  a  pure  alms  bias  been  However,  since  all  these  precepts  have  been  imposed 
since  lost  by  the  stipend,  since  such  may  be  accepted  solely  in  the  interests  of  the  stipend-giver,  it  is  evident 
by  even  a  wealthy  priest.  But  the  Pauline  principle  that  he  enjoys  the  right  of  sanctioning  all  unusual 
applies  to  the  wealthy  priest  just  as  it  does  to  the  poor,  delavs. 

The  now  customary  money-offering,  which  was  intro-  (d)  To  the  kindred  question  of  "mass-foundations" 
duced  about  the  eighth  century  and  was  tacitly  ap-  the  Church  has,  in  the  interests  of  the  founder  and  in 
proved  by  the  Church,  is  to  be  regarded  merely  as  tne  her  high  regard  for  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  devoted  the 
substitute  or  commutation  of  the  earlier  presentation  same  anxious  care  as  in  the  case  of  stipends.  Mass- 
of  the  necessaries  of  life.  In  this  very  point,  also,  a  foundations  (fundaUonea  mismrum)  are  fixed  bequests 
change  from  the  ancient  practice  has  been  introduced,  of  funds  or  real  property,  the  interest  or  income  from 
since  at  present  the  individual  priest  receives  the  sti-  which  is  to  procure  for  ever  the  celebration  of  Mass  for 
pend  personally,  whereas  formerly  all  the  clergy  of  the  the  founder  or  according  to  his  intentions.  Apart 
particular  church  shared  among  them  the  total  obla-  from  anniversaries,  foundations  of  Masses  are  divided, 
tions  and  gifts.  In  their  present  form,  the  whole  mat-  according  to  the  testamentary  arrangement  of  the 
ter  of  stipends  has  been  omcially  taken  by  the  Church  testator,  mto  monthly,  weekly,  and  daily  foundations, 
entirely  under  her  protection,  both  by  the  Council  of  As  ecclesiastical  property,  mass-foundations  are  sub- 
Trent  (Sess.  XXII^  de  ref .)  and  by  the  dogmatic  Bull  ject  to  the  administration  of  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
"Auctorem  fidei"  (1796)  of  Pius  VI  (Denzinger,  n.  ties,  especially  of  the  diocesan  bishop,  who  must 
1554).  Siaoe  the  stipend,  in  its  origin  and  nature,  grant  his  permission  for  the  acceptance  of  such  and 
claims  to  be  and  can  be  nothing  else  than  a  lawful  con-  must  appoint  for  them  the  lowest  rate.  Only  when 
tribution  tow^ards  the  proper  support  of  the  clergy,  the  episcopal  approval  has  been  secured  can  the  founda- 
f alse  and  foolish  views  of  the  ignorant  are  shown  to  be  tion  be  regarded  as  completed ;  thenceforth  it  is  unal- 
without  foundation,  when  they  suppose  that  a  Ma^s/^  terable  for  ever.  In  places  where  the  acquirement  of 
may  be  simoniacally  purchased  with  money ?(cf.  St?  >  ecclesiastical  property  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  c,  art.  2).  To  obviate  all  abuses  State  (e.  g.  in  Austria),  the  establishment  of  a  mass- 
concemmg  the  amount  of  the  stipend,  there  exists  in  foundation  must  also  be  submitted  to  the  secular  au- 
each  diocese  a  fixed  "  mass-tax  "  (settled  either  by  an-  thorities.  The  declared  wishes  of  the  founder  are 
dent  custom  or  by  an  episcopal  regulation),  which  no  sacred  and  decisive  as  to  the  manner  of  fulfilment. 
priest  may  exceed,  unless  extraordinary  inconven-  Should  no  special  intention  be  mentioned  in  the  deed  of 
lenoe  (e.  g.  long  fasting  or  a  long  journey  on  foot)  foundation,  the  Mass  must  be  applied  for  the  founder 
justifies  a  somewhat  larger  sum.  To  eradicate  all  un-  himself  (S.C.  C,  18  March,  1668).  To  secure  punc- 
worthy  greed  from  among  both  laity  and  clergv  in  con-  tuality  in  the  execution  of  the  foundation,  Iimocent 
nexion  with  a  thing  so  sacred,  Pius  IX  in  his  Constitu-.  XII  ordered  in  1697  that  a  list  of  the  mass-founda- 
tion "ApostoHcffi  Sedis''  of  12  Oct.,  1869,  forbade  tions,  arranged  according  to  the  months,  be  kept  in 
under  penalty  of  excommunication  the  commercial  each  church  possessing  such  endowments.  The  ad- 
tni&c  m  Btij>end8  {mercimoniummisBCB  atipendiorum).  ministrators  of  pious  foundations  are  bound  under 
The  traffidong  consists  in  reducing  the  larger  stipend  pain  of  mortal  sin  to  forward  to  the  bishop  at  the  end 
collected  to  the  level  of  the  "tax",  and  appropriating  of  each  year  a  list  of  all  founded  Masses  left  uncele- 
the  surplus  for  oneself.  Into  the  category  of  shame-  brated  together  with  the  money  therefor  (S.  C.  C,  25 
ful  tram c  in  stipends  also  falls  the  reprehensible  prao-  May,  1893). 

tioe  of  book-sellers  and   tradesmen,  who   organize  The  celebrant  of  a  founded  Mass  is  entitled  to  the  full 

public  collections  of  stipends  and  retain  the  money  con-  amount  of  the  foundation,  unless  it  is  evident  from  the 

tributlons  as  payment  for  books,  merchandise,  wines,  circumstances  of  the  foundation  or  from  the  wording 

etc.,  to  be  delivered  to  the  clergy  (S.C.  C,  31  Aug.,  of  the  deed  that  an  exception  is  justifiable.    Such  is 

1874 ;  25  May,  1893) .    As  special  punishment  for  this  the  case  when  the  foundation  serves  also  as  the  endow- 

offence,  suspenHo  a  divinis  reserved  to  the  pope  is  mentof  a  benefice,  and  consequently  in  such  a  case  the 

proclaimed  against  priests^  irregularity  against  other  beneficiary  is  bound  to  pay  his  substitute  only  the 

clerics,  and  excommunication  reserved  to  the  bishop,  regular  tax  (S.C.C.,  25  July,  1874).    Without  urgent 

against  the  laity.  reason,  founded  Masses  may  not  be  celebrated  in 

Another  bulwark  against  avarice  is  the  strict  regu-  churches  (or  on  altars)  other  than  those  stipulated 

lation  of  the  Church,  binding  under  pain  of  mortal  sin,  by  the  foundation.     Permanent  transference  of  such 

that  priests  shall  not  accept  more  intentions  than  Masses  is  reserved  to  the  pope,  but  in  isolated  in- 

they  can  satisfy  within  a  reasonable  period  (S.  C.  C.,1  stances  the  dispensation  of  tne  bishop  suffices  (cf. 

1904).    This  regulation  was  emphasized  by  the  addi-  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI  de  ref.;  Sess.  XXV  de 

tional  one  which  forbade  stipends  to  be  transferred  to  ref.) .    The  unavoidable  loss  of  the  income  of  a  f ounda- 

priests  of  another  diocese  without  the  knowledge  of  tion  puts  an  end  to  all  obligations  connected  with  it. 

their  ordinaries  (S.  C.  C.,  22  May,  1907).    The  accept-  A  serious  diminution  of  the  foundation  capital,  owing  to 

anoe  of  a  stipend  imposes  under  pain  of  mortal  sin  the  the  depreciation  of  money  or  property  in  value,  also 

obligation  not  only  of  reading  the  stipulated  Mass,  but  the  necessary  increase  of  the  mass-tax,  scarcity  of 

also  of  fulfilling  conscientiously  all  other  appointed  priests,  poverty  of  a  church  or  of  the  clergy  may  con- 


22 


MASS 


stitute  just  groundB  for  the  reduction  of  the  number  of 
Masses,  since  it  may  be  reasonably  presumed  that  the 
deceased  founder  would  not  under  such  difficult  cir- 
cumstance insist  upon  the  obligation.  On  21  June. 
1025,  the  right  of  reduction,  which  the  Council  ol 
TVent  had  conferred  on  bishops,  abbots,  and  the  gen- 
erals of  religious  orders,  was  again  reserved  by  Urban 
VIII  to  the  Holy  See. 

Consult  Pabquauoo,  De  waeriAcio  Novm  LegU  qivtmtL  tKtolo' 
gic9»  moraUBt  iuridioB  (2  vols.,  Zijroiis,  1662) :  Bona,  De  waerijicio 
mtMaa  tract.  tueeHetu  (new  ed..  Frriburp,  1006;  Ratbbon,  1009); 
BBrKDicr  XIV,  De  m.  Miaaa  merifiew  in  Miqnb,  TheoL  Cum. 
CompUt.,  XXIII;  Kfiesnfo*  LUurg.  BrkUtnmo  tUr  hi.  Meem  (3id 
ed..  HOnster,  1869):  THALBonsB,  Htmdhueh  derkatkol  Litwjfik 
(2  vols.,  FreibuiSt  i870);  BuATmBR,  Le  aaenfioe  dan*  U  doffme 
eathoL  et  done  la  vie  ehrU.  (Paxis.  1889):  Hii.arxub  a  Sbztbn. 
Tract,  paeloralie  de  aacramerUie  (Mains,  1895);  Qasparri,  Tract, 
eanonicua  de  ae.  Evcharittia  (Paris,  1897);  Qiordaico,  Dae  eueh. 
Leben  u.  doe  ewioe  KOniatum  Chrieti,  tr.  from  Italian  (Freibuis, 
1900);  PRUNBR,  Lehrtueh  der  PaetoraUKeoL,  I  (2d  ed.,  Frel- 
buis*  1904) ;  Baz/tbabar,  Dae  OAeimnie  oiler  OAeimnieee  m  hL 
SakramerU  dee  AUare  (FreibuTSf  1906);  Ttbrbzx-Qrbbn,  The 
Buchariett  Detfotional  Addreeeea  on  tte  chief  Aepeele  (London, 
1908) ;  KiNANB.  Dove  of  the  Tabernacle;  or.  The  Love  of  J  emu  m 
the  Moet  Holy  Suehariet  (Dublin).  CSennan  tr.  (Freibuis,  1910). 
On  particxilar  points  consult  Kraub,  ReaUneyld.  derchrietL  AUer- 
tamer  (2  vols.,  Freibuis,  1879-86);  Wxbland,  Menea  u.  Con- 
feeeio,  I  (Munich,  1906);  Raxblb,  Der  Tabemakd  einti,  u.  jetet 
(Freiburg.  1908);  Braun,  Die  wieetcri.  Gewdnder  dee  Abend- 
landee  naeh  ihrer  geeehichtL  Entwtekluno  (Freiburv.  1807) ;  Idbm, 
Die  Utiarg.  Oewandung  tm  Occident  u.  Orient  naeh  Ureprung  u. 
Bntwickltmg  (Freiburg,  1907)  Concerning  msi  stipends,  see 
Bbrlbndxb,  De  oblationibue  et  etipendiie  (Venice,  1743) ;  Scbmid, 
Meeaopfer,  MeeeappUkaOon  u.  Meeatipendien  (Passau,  1834); 
Lbxnb.  Die  Sinumie,  eine  kanoniatiaehe  Shtdie  (Freibuig,  1902). 
C(»sult  further  Phxulxps,  Lehrbveh  dee  Kirchenrechte  (2d  ed., 
Ratisbon,  1871),  549  sag.;  Lbbiucuhl,  TheoL  moralie,  II  (10th 
ed.,  Freibuig,  1902) :  QOprBRT,  Moraltheologie,  III  (6th  ed., 
Paderbom.  1906).  C>n  mass-foundations  see  Bbnbdxct  XIV, 
De  aynod.  diocea.,  V,  z;  XII,  zxv;  Eubbt,  Nature  juridique  de  la 
fondation  de  Meaaee  (Paris,  1906);  Dbjdst,  Dee  fmdatione  de 
Meaaee  (Paris.  1908);  Tbdrbtok  in  The  Month  (1908),  13-27. 

(2)  Precepts  to  secure  the  Worthiness  of  the  Cele- 
brant.— AJtnough,  as  declared  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Sees.  XXII,  cap.  i),  the  venerable,  pure,  and  sublime 
Sacrifice  of  the  God-man  **  cannot  be  stained  by  any 
unworthiness  or  impiety  of  the  celebrant",  still  ec- 
clesiastical legislation  has  long  regarded  it  as  a  matter 
<^  special  concern  that  priests  should  fit  themselves  for 
the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  by  the  cultivation 
of  integrity,  purity  of  heart,  and  other  qualities  of  a 
personal  nature. 

(a)  In  the  first  place  it  may  be  asked:  Who  may 
celebrate  Mass?  Smce  for  the  validity  of  the  sacrifice 
the  office  of  a  special  priesthood  is  essential,  it  is  dear, 
to  begin  with,  that  only  bishops  and  priests  (not  dea- 
cons) are  qualified  to  offer  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice  (see 
Eucharist).  The  fact  that  even  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  the  regular  officiator  at  the  Eu- 
charistic  celebration  seems  to  have  been  the  bishop 
will  be  more  readily  understood  when  we  remember 
that  at  this  early  period  there  was  no  strict  distinc- 
tion between  the  offices  of  bishop  and  priest.  Like 
the  "Didache"  (xv),  Clement  ci  Rome  (Ad  Cor.,  xl- 
xlii)  speaks  only  of  the  bishop  and  his  deacon  in  con- 
nexion with  the  sacrifice.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  in- 
deed, who  bears  irrefutable  testimony  to  the  existence 
of  the  three  divisions  of  the  hierarchy — ^bishop  (hrl^Ko- 
Tot).  priests  (wfMofi&rtpot)  and  deacons  (StdKopot) — 
connnes  to  the  bishop  the  privilege  of  celebrating  the 
Divine  Service,  when  he  says:  **  It  is  unlawful  to  bap- 
tize or  to  hold  the  agape  {d7dTiyr]  without  the  bishop." 
The  "Canones  Hippolyti",  composed  probably  about 
the  end  of  the  second  century,  first  contain  the  regula- 
tion (can.  xxxii) :  "  If,  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  a 
priest  be  at  hand,  all  shall  devolve  upon  him,  and  ne 
shall  be  honoured  as  the  bishop  is  honoured."    Subse- 

Suent  tradition  recognises  no  other  celebrant  of  the 
[ystery  of  the  Eucharist  than  tl^  bishops  and  priests, 
who  are  validly  ordained  "  according  to  the  keys  of  the 
Church"  {secundum  davea  Ecdesia),  (Cf.  Lateran  lY, 
cap.  ''Firmiter"  in  Densinger,  n.  430.) 

But  the  Church  demands  still  more  by  insisting  also 
on  the  personal  moral  worthiness  of  the  celebrant. 


This  connotes  not  alone  freedom  from  all  ecclesiastical 
censures  (excommunication,  stispension,  interdict), 
but  also  a  becoming  preparation  of  the  soul  and  body 
of  the  priest  before  ne  approaches  the  altar.  To  cele- 
brate m  the  state  of  mortal  sin  has  always  been 
recarded  by  the  Church  as  an  infamous  8acriieg;e  (cf . 
I  Cor.,  xi,  27  sqa.) .  For  the  worthy  (not  for  the  valid) 
celebration  of  the  Bfass  it  is,  therefore,  especially  re- 
quired that  the  celebrant  be  in  the  state  of  grace.  To 
place  him  in  this  condition,  the  awakening  of  perfect 
sorrow  is  no  longer  sufficient  since  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XIII,  cap.  vii  in  Densinger,  n.  880),  for  there  is 
a  strict  ecclesiastical  precept  that  the  reception  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance  must  precede  the  celebration  of 
Mass.  This  rule  applies  to  all  priests,  even  whea  they 
are  bound  by  their  office  (ex  officio)  to  read  Mass,  e.  g. 
on  Sunda3rs  for  their  parishioners.  Only  in  instances, 
when  no  confessor  can  be  procured,  may  they  content 
themselves  with  reciting  an  act  of  perfect  sorrow 
(conintio)^  and  they  then  incur  the  obligation  of  going 
to  confession  ''as  early  as  possible"  (quam  primum), 
which,  in  canon  law,  signifies  within  three  days  at 
furthest.  In  addition  to  the  pious  preparation  for 
Mass  (occessus),  there  is  prescribed  a  correspondingly 
long  thanksgiving  after  Mass  (recessiu),  whose  length 
is  meed  by  moral  theologians  between  fifteen  minutes 
and  half  an  hour,  although  in  this  connexion  the  par- 
ticular official  engagements  of  the  priest  must  be  con- 
sidered. As  regutu  the  length  of  the  Mass  itself,  the 
duration  is  naturally  variable,  according  as  a  Solemn 
High  Mass  is  sung  or  a  Low  Mass  celebrated.  To  per- 
form worthily  all  the  ceremonies  and  pronounce  clearly 
all  the  prayers  in  Low  Mass  requires  on  an  average 
about  half  an  hour.  Moral  theologians  justly  declare 
that  the  scandalous  haste  necessary  to  finish  Mass  in 
less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  is  impossible  without 
grievous  sin. 

With  regard  to  the  more  immediate  preparation  of 
the  body,  custom  has  declared  from  time  immemorial, 
and  positive  canon  law  since  the  Coimdl  of  Constance 
(1415),  that  the  faithful,  when  receiving  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Altar,  and  priests,  when  celebrating  the 
Holy  Sacrifice,  must  be  fasting  (jejunium  naturaU). 
which  means  that  they  must  have  partaken  of  no  food 
or  drink  whatsoever  from  midnight.  Midnii^t  begins 
with  the  first  stroke  of  the  hour.  In  calculating  the 
hour,  the  so-called  *'  mean  time  "  (or  local  time)  must 
be  used:  according  to  a  recent  decision  (S.  C.  C,  12 
July,  1893).  Central-European  time  may  be  also  em- 
ployed, ana,  in  North  America,  "sone  time".  The 
movement  recently  begun  among  the  German  clergy, 
favouring  a  mitigation  of  the  strict  regulation  for  weak 
or  overworked  priests  with  the  obligation  of  duplicat- 
ing, has  serious  objections,  since  a  general  relaxation 
of  tne  ancient  strictness  might  easily  result  in  lessening 
respect  for  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  in  a  harmful 
reaction  among  thoughtless  members  of  the  laity. 
The  granting  of  mitigations  in  general  or  in  exceptional 
cases  belongs  to  the  Holy  See  alone.  To  keep  away 
from  the  altar  irreverent  adventurers  and  unworthv 
priests,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII,  de  ref.) 
issued  the  decree,  made  much  more  stringent  in  later 
times,  that  an  unknown  priest  without  the  Celebret 
(q.  V.)  may  not  be  allowea  to  say  Mass  in  any  church. 

(b)  A  second  Question  may  be  asked:  "who  must 
say  Blass?  "  In  tne  first  place,  if  this  question  be  con- 
sidered identical  with  the  enquiiy  as  to  whether  a  gen- 
eral obligation  of  Divine  Law  binds  every  priest  by 
reason  of  his  ordination,  the  old  Scholastics  are  divided 
in  opinion.  St.  Thomas,  Durandus,  Paludanus,  and 
Antnony  of  Bolo^ia  certainly  maintained  the  exist- 
ence of  such  an  obligation ;  on  the  other  hand,  Richard 
of  St.  Victor.  Alexander  of  Hales,  Bonaventure,  Ga- 
briel Biel,  and  Cardinal  Cajetan  declared  for  the  oppo> 
site  view.  Canon  law  teaches  nothing  on  the  subiect. 
In  the  absence  of  a  decision,  Suares  (De  Euchar.,  diap. 
Izxx,  sect.  1,  n.  4)  believes  that  one  who  conforms  to 


MASS  23  MASS 

the  negative  view,  may  be  declared  free  from  grievous  question  must  be  touched  on  in  this  seetioQ:  Fot 
sin.  Of  the  ancient  hermits  we  know  that  they  did  whom  ma^  Mass  be  celebrated?  In  general  the  answer 
not  celebrate  the  Holy  Sacrifice  in  the  desert,  and  St.  may  be  given:  For  all  those  and  for  those  only,  whe 
Ignatius  Loyola,  guided  by  high  motives,  abstained  are  fitted  to  particii>ate  in  the  fruits  of  the  Mass  as  an 
for  a  whole  year  from  celebrating.  Cardinal  De  Lugo  impetratory,  propitiatory,  and  satisfactory  sacrifice. 
(De  Euchar.,  disp.  xx,  sect.  1,  n.  13)  takes  a  middle  From  this  is  unmediately  derived  the  rule  that  Mass 
course,  by  adoptmg  theoretically  the  milder  opinion,  may  not  be  said  for  the  damned  in  Hell  or  the 
while  declaring  that,  in  practice,  omission  through  blessed  in  Heaven,  since  they  are  incapable  of  receiv- 
lukewarmness  and  neglect  may,  on  account  of  the  ing  the  fruits  of  the  Blass;  for  the  same  reason  children 
scandal  caused,  easily  amount  to  mortal  sin.  This  who  die  unbaptised  are  excluded  from  the  benefits  of 
consideration  explains  the  teaching  of  the  moral  theo-  the  Mass.  Thus^  there  remain  as  the  possible  partid- 
lo^ans  that  every  priest  is  bound  under  pain  of  mortal  pants  only  the  hving  on  earth  and  the  poor  souls  in 
sin  to  celebrate  at  least  a  few  times  each  year  (e.  g.  at  purgatory  (cf .  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  can.  iii;  Sess.  XXV, 
£aster,  Pentecost,  Christmas,  the  Epipnany).  The  decret.  de  purgatO*  Partly  out  of  her  great  venera- 
obligation  of  hearing  Mass  on  all  Sunaays  and  holy  tion  of  the  Sacrifice,  however,  and  i>artly  to  avoid 
days  of  obligation  is  of  course  not  abrogated  for  sucn  scandal,  the  Church  has  surrounded  with  certain  con- 
priests.  The  spirit  of  the  Church  demands — and  it  is  ditions,  which  priests  are  bound  in  obedience  to  ob- 
to-day  the  practically  universal  custom — that  a  priest  serve,  the  application  of  Mass  for  certain  classes  of  the 
should  celebrate  daily,  unless  he  prefers  to  omit  his  living  and  aead.  The  first  class  are  non-tolerated  ex- 
Mass  occasionally  through  motives  of  reverence.  communicated  persons^  who  are  to  be  avoided  by  the 

Until  far  into  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  left  to  the  die-  faithful  {exccnnmunicaH  vUandt),  Although,  according 

cretion  of  the  priest,  to  his  personal  devotion  and  his  to  various  authors,  the  priest  is  not  f orbidaen  to  offer 

zeal  for  souls,  whether  he  should  read  more  than  one  up  Mass  for  such  unhappy  persons  in  private  and  with 

Mass  on  the  same  day.   But  since  the  twelfth  century  a  merely  mental  intention,  still  to  announce  publicly 

canon  law  declares  that  he  must  in  general  content  such  a  Mass  or  to  insert  the  name  of  the  excommum- 

bimself  with  one  daily  Mass,  and  the  synods  of  the  cated  person  in  the  prayere,  even  though  he  may  be  in 

thirteenth  century  allow,  even  in  case  of  necessity,  at  the  state  of  grace  owing  to  perfect  sorrow  or  may  have 

most  a  duplication  (see  Bination).    In  the  course  of  died  truly  repentant,  would  be  a  '' communicatio  in 

time  this  privilege  of  celebrating  the  Holy  Sacr^ce  divinis",  ancl  is  strictly  forbidden  \mder  penalty  of 

twice  OQ  toe  same  day  was  more  and  more  curtailed,  excommunication  (cf .  C.  28,  de  sent,  excomm.,  Y,  t. 

According  to  the  existing  law,  duplication  is  allowed,  39).   It  is  likewise  forbidden  to  offer  the  Mass  publiclv 

under  special  conditions,  only  on  Sundays  and  holv  and  solemnly  for  deceased  non-Catholics,  even  though 

days,  and  then  only  in  the  interests  of  the  faithful,  they  were  princes  (Innoc.  HI.  C.  12,  X,  1.  3^  tit.  28). 

that  thev  may  be  enabled  to  fulfil  their  obligation  oi  On  the  other  hand  it  is  aDowea,  in  consideration  of  the 

hearing  Mass.    For  the  feast  of  Christmas  alone  have  welfare  of  the  state,  to  celebrate  for  a  non-Catholic 

priests  universall^r  been  allowed  to  retain  the  privilege  living  ruler  even  a  public  Solemn  Mass.    For  living 

of  three  Masses;  in  Spain  and  Portugal  this  privilege  heretics  and  schismatics,  also  for  the  Jews,  Turks,  and 

was  extended  to  All  Souls'  Dav  (2  Nov.)  by  special  heathens,  Mass  mav  be  privately  applied  (and  even  a 

Indult  of  Benedict  XIV  (1746).    Such  customs  are  stipend  taken)  with  the  object  of  procuring  for  them 

unknown  in  the  East.  the  grace  of  conversion  to  the  true  Faith.    For  a  de- 

This  general  obligation  of  a  priest  to  celebrate  Mass  ceased  heretic  the  private  and  hypothetical  applica- 

must  not  be  confounded  with  the  special  obligation  tion  of  the  Mass  is  allowed  only  when  the  priest  has 

which  results  from  the  acceptance  of  a  Mass-stipend  good  founds  for  believing  that  the  deceased  held  his 

(Mtgatio  ex  stipenaio)  or  from  the  cure  of  souls  (Mir  error  m  good  faith  (bona  jute.    Cf .  S.  C.  Officii,  7  April, 

gaHo  ex  cura  animarum).  Concerning  the  former  suffi-  1875).   To  celebrate  Mass  privately  for  deceased  cate- 

cient  has  been  already  said.    As  regards  the  claims  of  chumens  is  permissible,  smce  we  may  assume  that 

the  cure  of  souls,  the  obligation  of  Divine  Law  that  thev  are  alr^dy  justified  by  their  desire  of  Baptism 

parish  priests  and  administratore  of  a  parish  should  and  are  in  purgatory.    In  hke  manner  Mass  may  be 

from  time  to  time  celebrate  Mass  for  their  parish-  celebrated  privately  for  the  souls  of  deceased  Jews  and 

ioners,  arises  from  the  relations  of  pastor  ana  flock.  heaUiens,  who  have  led  an  upright  life,  since  the  sacri- 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII.  de  ref .)  has  speci-  fice  is  intended  to  benefit  all  who  are  in  pui]gatory. 

fied  this  duty  of  application  more  dosely,  by  directing  For  further  details  see  Gopfert, "  Moraltheologie  ",  III 

that  the  parish  priestsbould  especially  apply  theMass.  (5th  ed.,  Paderbom,  1906). 

for  which  no  stipend  may  be  taken,  for  his  flock  on  all  .In  addiUon  to  the  speoUl  bibUosraphy  gi  vcm  under  eadi  see- 

Sundays  and  holy  days  (d;  Benedict  XIV   "Cum  tSSi:t^'S^:!:^^^^iSSi/fS?)f{S!:^l£^ 

semper  oblatas",  19  Aug.,  1744).     The  obhgation  to  Hadten  Begeiehnunpm  Jems,  ChrUU  aU  Siloe,  SehiJodi  u.  PiacU, 


114  eqq.  ^  Coa- 
the  whole  sub- 


remain  •'canonicaUy  fixed  feast  days'*,  although  the  bom.  1907);  XoiAoWfc.  II  (l90n,  ^9;  I  (1908).  l 

Wthful  are  dispensed,  from  the  obfigation  of  hearin/j  SSS^^^&^^ESL&j;-  '^^^  .„...  ™- 

Mass  and  may  engage  m  servile  works.  The  same  obh-  ject:  Summa  Theol,,  HI.  Q.  bgcdii;  Innogbnt  ni.  De  men 

gation  of  applying  the  Mass  falls  likewise  on  bishops,  aUans  rnvMerM  in  P.  L..  CCXXVII,  773  sqq.;  Bxti^uART,  1)« 

«i  pastom  of  ^>eir  dioowes.  and  on  tho«.  abbota  wVo  fi"r^S:l!?i,\,V  Si  ^!2S?S:'D*."r5SS'.^J^Wfc 

exercise  over  clergy  and  people  a  quasi-epiSCOpal  juna-  itadt,  1580) ;  Suarxs,  De  Buchar.  el  de  Miaem  musri/icio  (new  ed.. 

diction.   Titular  bishops  alone  are  excepted,  although  Pa™,  isei);  Dp  Luoo,  Deee.  Bvcharidia,  IV,  ed.  Fourniaub; 

even  in  their  ca«e  the  applioition  is  toje  desiml  (rf^  St^'i2:,";^''1gS!Si^^kii^;  ^^'J^SSS 

Leo  Xin,    In  suprema",  10  June,  1882).    As  the  ob-  eta  my^twio  (Cunbx^,  1876):  Framsbun.  De  m.  BuchariHim 

ligation  itself  is  not  only  personal,  but  also  real,  the  •«»«»»»2»'<'.^  «acri«c»o  (4«h  ML»,Rome,  i884)LKATBaBTHAUBR, 

applic^ioa  murt.  in  oa«  of  an  impedim^t  arising.  ^i^^iSSS^  ^^F^ii&^'S^liJ^l:  teSScS" it 

either  be  made  soon  afterwards,  or  be  effected  through  ekariatim   (fnuBbnick.    1889);    Many,  Prcaeaionee  de  Miaaa 

a  substitute,  who  has  a  right  to  a  mass  stipend  as  (P<^ris.  l9m):Qjymi,  The  Sacrifice  of  the  MaeaChondon,  1903); 

regulated  by  the  t«.    Con«rning  tWs  whoGTue?-  ^'^^l^t/^f.'t^S^'^^^.l^:  I&^^^^i 

Uon,  see  Heuser,  "Die  Yerpfliohtunf  der  Pfarrer,  die  SiouR,  Die  hi  Meaee  (Maini,  1874);  Cappbllassi,  L'^iieAarit- 

hL  Messe  fOr  die  Gemeinde  SU  appluaeren"  (Dtlissel-  tia  come  aacramento  e  come  eaerifieio  (Turin,  1898):  Hbrgbn- 

Anmf   MlMl\  rAthbr.  Die  BueharieHe  aie  Opfer  (Ratisbon.  1808);  HoLn- 

aon    l»w;.  wabth.  Briefe  Hberdaehl.  Meeeopfer  (Mbuii,  1873):  Mbnnb, 

(C)  For  the  mfJd  Ol  CtmpleteneSS  a  thud  and  last  Da9hl8akrwnerUdeeAUareaUOpfer^mdeihom,li79);l^B' 


MA8SA 


24 


MASSAOHirSERS 


ftKBiNo,  Da»  hi.  Jtf  eMop/«r  (Etnsiedein,  1880);  Businobr,  Das 
unblutioe  Opfer  dea  Neuen  Bundea  (Solothum,  1890);  Sauter, 
Dtu  hi.  Meaaopfer  (3rd  ed.,  Paderbom,  1910);'Lormann,  Daa 
Opfer  dea  Neuen  Buridea  (2nd  ed..  Paderbom,  1909);  also  the 
varioua  text-books  of  dogmatic  theology,  e.  c.  Pesch,  Prcdec- 
tionaa  dogmat.^Vl  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908):  Pohlb.  Daomatik, 
III  (4th  ed.,  Paderbom,  1910).  See  alao  Dibliography  under 
EXJCSAJUST.  J.  PoHLE. 

Massa  Candida. — Under  the  date  24  August,  the 
"Martyrologium  Romanum''  records  this  commem- 
oration :  "At  Carthage,  of  three  hundred  holy  martvrs 
in  the  time  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus.  Among  otner 
torments,  the  governor,  ordering  a  Hmekiln  to  be 
lighted  and  live  coals  with  incense  to  be  set  near  by, 
said  to  these  confessors  of  the  Faith: '  Choose  whether 
you  will  offer  incense  to  Jupiter  or  be  thrown  down 
mto  the  lime.'  And  they,  armed  with  faith,  con- 
fessing Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  with  one  swift  impulse 
hurled  themselves  into  the  fire,  where,  in  the  fumes  of 
the  burning  lime,  they  were  reduced  to  a  powder. 
Hence  this  band  of  blessed  ones  in  white  raiment  have 
been  held  worthy  of  the  name,  White  Mass"  The  date 
of  this  event  may  be  placed  between  a.  d.  253,  when 
Gallienus  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  imperial 
office,  and  a.  d.  260,  when  Valerian  was  entrapped  and 
made  prisoner  by  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  As  to  the 
exact  place,  St.  Augustine  [Ser.  cccvi  (al.  cxii),  2]  calls 
these  martyrs  the  ''White  Mass  of  Utica",  indicating 
that  there  they  were  specially  commemorated.  Utica 
was  only  25  miles  from  the  city  of  Carthage,  which  was 
the  capital  of  a  thickly  populated  district,  and  the 
three  hundred  may  have  been  brought  from  Utica  to 
be  judged  by  the  procurator  (Galenus  Maximus). 

The  fame  of  the  Massa  Candida  has  been  perpetuated 
chiefly  through  two  early  references  to  them:  that  of 
St.  Augustine,  and  that  of  the  poet  Prudentius  (q.  v.). 
The  latter,  in  the  thirteenth  hymn  of  his  xept  ffT€^dpt9P 
collection,  has  a  dozen  lines  describing  **  the  pit  dug  in 
the  midst  of  the  plain,  filled  nearly  U>  the  brim  with 
lime  that  emitted  choking  vapours  ",  how  the  "  stones 
vomit  fire,  and  the  snowy  dust  bums. "  After  telling 
how  they  faced  this  ordeal,  he  concludes:  "  Whiteness 
[candor]  possesses  their  bodies;  purity  [candor]  bears 
their  nunds  [or,  souls]  to  heaven.  Hence  it  [the ' '  head- 
long swarm"  to  which  the  poet  has  referred  in  a 
S receding  line]  has  merited  to  be  forever  called  the 
fossa  Candida.'*  Both  St.  Augustine  and  Pruden- 
tius were  at  the  height  of  their  activity  before  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century.  Moreover,  St.  Augustine 
was  a  native  and  a  resident  of  this  same  Province  of 
Africa,  while  Prudentius  was  a  Spaniard.  It  is  natu- 
ral to  suppose  that  the  glorious  tale  of  the  three  him- 
dred  of  Carthage  had  become  familiar  to  both  writers 
through  a  fresh  and  vivid  tradition — ^no  older  than  the 
traditions  of  the  Revolutionary  War  now  are  in,  say, 
New  England.  It  is  not  even  probable  that  either  of 
them  originated  the  metaphor  imder  which  the  mar- 
tyrs of  the  limekiln  have  been  known  to  later  genera- 
tions :  the  name  Massa  Candida  had,  most  likely,  been 
lonf  in  use  among  the  faithful  of  Africa  and  Spain. 
As  Christians,  they  would  have  been  reminded  of  Apoc, 
vii,  13  and  14,  by  every  commemoration  of  a  martyr- 
dom; as  Romans — at  least  in  language  and  habit  of 
thou^t — ^they  were  aware  that  candidates  (candidati) 
for  office  were  said  to  have  been  so  called  in  Republi- 
can Rome  from  the  custom  of  whitening  the  toga  with 
chalk  or  lime  {caix)  when  canvassing;  for  votes.  Given 
the  Apocalyptic  imaee  and  the  Latm  et3rmolofi^  {can- 
dor— candidus — candidaius;  of.  in  the  "Te  Deum'*, 
"Candidatus  martyrum  exercitus'^,  it  was  almost  in- 
evitable that  this  united  body  of  witnesses  for  Christ, 
together  winning  their  heavenly  white  raiment  in  the 
incandescent  lime,  which  reduced  their  bodies  to  a 
homogeneous  mass,  should,  by  the  peculiar  form  of 
their  agony,  have  suggested  tms  name  to  the  African 
and  Spanish  Christians. 

(For  the  casuistry  of  the  self-destruction  of  the 
Massa  Candida,  see  Sxhcide.) 


HaiionnifiTBBR,  Kirchmgaaeh.,  Frenoh  tr.  Belst,  I  (Paris. 
1901);  MoRom,  Diaionanc  di  Erudiaione  Storica-Eedea.,  XLEI 
(Venioe,  1847),  100. 

E.  Macphbrson. 

Massa 0arrara,DiocE8E of  (Mabsensis),  in  Central 
Italy  (Lunigiana  and  Garfagnana).  The  city  is  located 
on  the  Frigido,  in  a  district  rich  in  various  mines  but 
especially  famous  for  its  pure  white  marble  ^hich  the 
Romans  preferred  to  those  of  Paros  and  Pentelicus. 
Massa  Carrara  is  the  "  Mansio  ad  Tabema  Frigida  "  of 
the  "Tabula  Peutingeriana ".  In  the  ninth  century 
it  belonged  to  the  bishops  of  Luni,  and  was  confirmed 
to  them  by  Otto  I  and  by  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
though  really  at  that  time  subject  to  the  Malaspina, 
counts  of  Lunigiana.  It  passed  from  Lucca  to  Pisa, 
was  held  by  the  Visconti  and  the  Fieschi,  again  by 
Lucca,  and  was  later  a  free  commune  under  the  pro- 
tectorate of  Florence.  In  1434,  it  took  the  marquis 
Antonio  Alberico  Malaspina  for  its  lord;  in  154S  the 
marquisate  passed  to  the  House  of  Cyb6j  through  the 
marriage  of  Lorenzo  of  that  name  with  Riccarda 
Malaspina.  In  1568,  Carrara  became  a  principality, 
and  in  1664  a  duchy.  The  most  famous  prince  of  the 
house  of  Cyb6  was  Alberico  I,  who  endowed  his  little 
state  with  a  model  code  of  laws.  The  daughter  of 
Alderamo,  the  last  of  the  Cybds,  married  Rinaldo 
Ercole  d'Este,  and  by  this  marriage  the  duchy  became 
united  with  that  of  Modena;  in  1806  it  was  given  to 
Elisa  Bacciochi,  and  in  1814  to  Maria  B^itrice,  daugh- 
ter of  Rinaldo  Ercole,  at  whose  death  the  duchy 
returned  to  Modena.  The  name  of  Carrara  comes  from 
Carraria,  a  stone  quarry.  An  academy  of  sculpture 
founded  by  Duchess  Maria  Teresa  (1741)  has  its  seat 
at  Carrara  in  the  old  but  magnificent  ducal  palace. 
The  fine  cathedral  dates  from  1300.  Corrara  is  the 
birthplace  of  the  sculptors  Tacca.  Baratta,  Finelli,  and 
Tenerani,  and  of  the  statesman  Pellegrino  Rossi.  The 
see  was  created  in  1822  at  the  instance  of  Duchess 
Maria  Beatrice,  and  its  first  bishop  was  Francesco 
Maria  Zappi;  it  was  then  suffragan  of  Pisa,  but  since 
1855  has  been  suffragan  of  Modena.  The  sanctuary 
of  Santa  Maria  dei  Quercioli,  founded  in  1832,  is  in  the 
Diocese  of  Carrara.  The  latter  has  213  parishes, 
155,400  inhabitants,  one  religious  house  of  men,  seven 
of  women,  and  four  educational  institutes  for  male 
students,  and  as  many  for  girls. 

CAPPELLirm,  Le  Chieae  d'ltalia,  XV  (Venice.  1857):  Fab- 
BBTTX,  Ragionamento  atorieo  iniomo  aUa  eiUit  di  Modena;  Viami, 
Memoria  deUa  famiglia  Cybb^ 

U.  Bbnioki. 

Massachasetts,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  United 
States  of  America.  The  Commonwealth  of  Massachu- 
setts covers  part  of  the  territory  originally  granted  to 
the  Plymouth  Company  of  England.  It  grew  out  of 
the  consolidation  (in  1692)  of  the  two  original  colonies, 
Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay.  The  settlement  at 
Plymouth  began  with  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  22 
December,  1620;  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
was  established  under  John  Endicott  at  Salem  in  1628. 
The  royal  province  created  by  this  consolidation  in- 
cluded also  the  District  of  Maine  and  so  remained 
imtil  the  present  State  of  Maine  was  set  off  from 
Massachusetts  by  Congress,  3  March,  1820.  No  au- 
thentic and  complete  survey  of  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts exists,  but  it  is  generally  believed  to  include 
an  area  of  about  8040  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  rather  more  than  three  millions.  Of  tliis  number 
1,373,752  are  Catholics,  distributed  among  the  three 
Dioceses  of  Boston  (the  Archdiocese),  Fall  River,  and 
Springfield,  which  are  the  actual  ecclesiastical  divi- 
sions of  the  state.  Classified  by  nationalities,  this 
Catholic  population  comprises  more  than  7000  Ger- 
mans, 60,000  Portuguese,  100,000  Italians,  150,000 
French  Canadians,  10,000  Lithuanians,  3000  Syrians, 
25,000  Poles,  1000  Negroes,  81  Chinese,  3000  Bravas, 
the  remainder — more  than  1,000,000 — being  princi- 
pally Irish  or  of  Irish  parentage.      « 


BUSSAOHUSKTTB  2 

I.  CoLONiAi.  HiSTORT  .—A .  SeUiejnenl . — The  explora- 
tiooa  and  settlements  of  the  Northmen  upon  the  shores 
of  Maasachuaetta,  the  voyages  of  the  Cabots,  the  tem- 
porary settlement  (1602)  of  theGosnoldpartyononeof 
the  Elizabeth  lekads  of  Biuxard*H  Bay^  and  the  eT- 

Eloratioos  and  the  mapping  of  the  New  England  coast 
y  Captain  John  Smithare  usually  passed  over  as  more 
or  less  ctMijectural.    The  undisputed  history  of  Massa- 
ehuaetts  begins  with  the  ajrival  of  the  "Mayflower" 
in  December,  1S20.     Nevertheless  the  due  apprecia- 
tion of  these  previous  eveats  gives  a  ready  and  logical 
explanation  of  maoy  acts,  customs,  and  laws  of  the 
founders  of  this  commonwealth  which,  in  general,  are 
imperfectly  understood.   The  early  maps  (15S2)  mark 
the  present  territory  of  New  England  under  the  name 
"  Norumbe^  ",  and  show  that  the  coast  had  been  vis- 
ited by  Chnstian  mariners— whether  by  fishermen  in 
search  of  the  fisheries  set  forth  by  Cabot,  or  by  the 
daring  Drakes.  Frobishers,  and  liiwkinseB  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign,  does  not  seem  clear.    It  is  an  accepted 
fact  that,  when  Gosnold  set  out  in  1602^  there  was  not 
a  single  English  settlement  on  the  Continent.    France 
did  not  a<&iowledge  the  claim  of  England  over  the 
whole  of  the  territory,     A 
French  colony  bad    been 
established  where  now  is 
northern  Virginia,  und  er  the 
name    of   "New  France". 

SThia  was  after  Veraiiano's 
expedition  mode  by  order 
of  Fmncis  I.  A  French 
explorer,  too,  the  Huguenot 
Sieur  de  Monts,  had  been 
to  Canada,  and  knew  much 
about  the  resources  of  that 
country,  especially  the  fur 
trade  of  the  Indian  tribes. 
Henry  IV  had  given  De 
MonU  a  patent  to  all  the 
Co>t-ov~Abks  country   now   included    in 

roBiflHaPABTorTinBiALoTNew  England,  also  a  mo- 
M»«i»cBu»tTT«  nopoly   of  the    fur    trade. 

All  this  is  important,  because  it  entered  into  the  con- 
ditions of  tius  early  permanent  settlement  here. 

For  a  quarter  of  a  century  prior  to  the  coining  of  the 
Pilgrims,  the  French  and  the  Dutch  resented  the  en- 
croachments of  the  English.  "The  Great  Patent  for 
New  England",  of  1620,  granted  to  Gorges  and  bis 
forty  associates,  has  been  called  a  "  despotic  as  well  as 
a  gigantic  commercial  monopoly".  This  grant  in- 
cluded the  New  Netherlands  o(  the  Dutch,  the  French 
Acadia  and,  indeed,  nearly  oU  the  present  inhabited 
British  possessions  in  North  America,  besides  all  New 
England,  the  State  of  New  York,  half  of  New  Jersey, 
nearly  all  of  Pennsytvania,  and  the  country  to  the 
west — in  short,  all  the  territory  from  the  fortieth  de- 
gree of  north  latitude  to  the  forty-eighth,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  English  had  in- 
creased the  enmity  of  the  French  by  destroying  the 
Catholic  settlements  at  Ste-Croix  and  at  Port-Royal, 
and  had  aroused  the  suspicion  and  hostility  of  the 
Indians  by  the  treachery  of  Hunt,  an  act  described  by 
Mather  as  "one  which  constrained  the  English  to  sus- 
pend their  trade  and  abandon  their  prospects  of  a 
settlement  in  New  England". 

The  religious  conditions  were  no  less  ominous  for 
the  Pil^ms.  At  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  centurv, 
all  Christian  Europe,  with  shght  exceptions,  was  Cattt- 
oUc  and  loyal  to  the  papacy^  at  the  close  of  that  cen- 
tury England  herself  was  the  mother  of  three  anti- 
papacy  sects:  the  State  Church  and  its  two  divisions; 
the  Nonconformists,  or  Puritans;  and  the  Separatists, 
or  Pilgrims.  At  the  time  of  the  sailing  of  the  "May- 
flower", the  Puritans  had  liecome  as  fully  disenfran- 
chised by  the  Anglican  Church  as  the  Pilgrims  had 
estranged  themselves  from  both;  each  distrusted  the 
others;  all  three  hated  the  Church  of  Rome.    Gtrf^ 


;  HAaSAOHUSSTTS 

and  hii  associates  bad  found  the  French  and  thrar 

Jesuit  missionaries  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  o( 
securing  fiw-Jrading  privileges  from  the  Indians.  The 
alleged  gold  and  copper  mines  of  Smith  and  of  Gosnold 
were  now  regarded  as  myths;  unless  something  could 
be  done  at  once,  the  opportunities  offered  by  their 
charter  monopoly  would  be  worthless.  A  permanent 
English  settlement  in  America  was  the  only  sure  way 
of  preventing  the  French  and  the  Dutch  from  aoquir- 
ingthe  Virginia  territory.  The  Gorges  company  knew 
of  the  cherished  hopes  otithe  Pilgrims  to  find  a  home 
away  from  their  English  peraecutora,  and,  after  much 
chicanery  on  the  port  of  tlie  promoters,  the  company 
agreed  to  found  a  home  for  the  Pilgrims  in  the  new 
world.  The  articles  of  agreement  were  wholly  com* 
mercial,  and  the  "Mayflower"  sailed  for  Virgiiua. 
History  differs  in  its  interpretation  of  the  end  of  that 
voyage,  but  all  agree  that  the  Pilgrims,  in  landing  at 
Plymouth,  22  December,  1S20,  were  outside  any  juris- 
diction of  their  patrons,  the  Virginia  Company.  The 
Pilgrims  themselves  recognised  their  difficulty,  and 
the  famous  "Compact"  was  adopted,  before  kmding, 


Gorges  r        ^     .  .,-. 

taining  from  James  I  the  new  charter  of  1620  which 
controlled,  on  a  commercial  basis,  all  religious  coloni- 
sation in  America.  The  struggle  of  race  against  race, 
tribe  against  tribe,  neighbour  against  neighbour  were 
oU  encouraged  so  long  as  the  warfare  brought  gain  to 
the  mercenary  adventurers  at  home.  The  Pilgrims, 
Ending  themselves  deserted  by  the  instigators  of  this 
ill-feehog,  were  forced  by  the  law  of  self-preservation 
to  continue  religious  intolerance  and  the  exterminar- 
tion  of  the  Indians.  Thus  it  is  that  we  find  the  laws, 
the  customs,  and  the  manners  of  these  first  English 
settlers  so  mterwoven  with  the  religiD-commercial 
principle.  The  coming  of  the  Puritans,  in  1829-30, 
added  the  factor  of  pohtics,  which  resulted  in  estab- 
lishing in  America  the  very  thing  against  which  these 
"Punsts"  had  fought  at  home,  namely,  the  union  of 
Church  and  State.  Here,  again,  at  Puritan  Salem, 
Gorges  and  Mason  cloaked  their  commercialism  under 
religion,  as  the  accounts  of  La  Tour  and  Winalow 
attest,  and  so  effective  were  their  machinations  that, 
as  early  as  16.35,  Endicotfs  seal  had  not  left  a  set  rf 
the  king's  colours  intact  with  the  red  cross  thereon — 
that  "  relic  of  popery  insufferable  in  a  Puritan  com- 
munity ". 

B.  Colonial  Le^XoHon.. — The  legality  of  the  early 
acts  of  the  colonists  depends,  to  a  great  decree,  oo 
whether  the  charters  granted  to  the  two  colonies  were 
tor  the  purpose  of  instituting  a  corporation  for  trading 
purposes,  or  whether  they  are  regarded  as  constitu- 
tions and  foundations  of  a  government.  This  much- 
controverted  point  has  never  been  settled  satisfacto- 
rily. The  repeated  demands  from  the  king,  often  with 
threat  of  prosecution,  for  the  return  of  the  charters 
were  ignored,  so  that,  until  I6S4,  the  colony  was  prao- 
tically  a  free  state,  independent  of  England,  and  pro- 
fessing httle,  if  any,  loyalty.  Judging  from  the  corre- 
spondence, it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  intention 
of  the  Crown  in  granting  the  charter  was  that  the  cor> 
poration  should  have  a  local  habftation  in  England, 
and  it  is  ecjually  evident  that  the  colony  did  not  pos- 
sess the  right  to  make  its  own  laws.  It  is  plamly 
stated,  in  the  patent  granted  to  the  Puritsjis,  who  tlie 
governor  and  other  officials  of  the  colony  should  be, 
showing  thereby  that  the  Crown  retainetl  the  right  ol 
governing.  A  new  charter  was  granted  in  1692,  cover- 
ing Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Maine,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  the  intervening  territory,  entitled  "The  Province 
of  Massachusetts  Bayin  New  England";  nevertheless 
it  was  not  until  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  ITl.'!,  that 
the  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  home  Government,    - 

the  Crown's  rights,  abated  notably.    During 

which  the  Puritans  ignored  the 
and  mode  laws  in  accordance 


MA88^HU8BTT8 


26 


BCAS&AUUUIUBTTB 


with  their  aim  selfiflh  interests,  many  of  those  acts 
occurred  which  histoiy  has  since  condemned.  At  the 
first  meeting  of  the  General  Court  held  30  August. 
1630,  it  was  voted  to  build  a  house  for  the  minister  and 
maintain  it  at  the  state's  expense — an  act  described 
by  Benedict,  in  his  '^  History  of  the  Baptists  ",  as  **  the 
first  dangerous  act  performed  by  the  rulers  of  this 
incipient  government  which  led  to  innumerable  evils, 
hardships,  and  privations  to  all  who  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  dissent  irom  the  ruling  power  in  after  times. — 
The  Viper  in  Embryo;  herfe  was  an  importation  and 
establisnment,  in  the  outset  of  the  settlement,  of  the 
odious  doctrine  of  Church  and  State  which  had  thrown 
empires  into  convulsions,  had  caused  rivers  of  blood 
to  be  shed,  had  crowded  prisons  with  innocent  victims, 
and  had  driven  the  Pilgnms  [he  means  Puritans]  them- 
selves, who  were  now  engaged  in  the  mistaken  legislar 
tion,  from  all  that  was  dear  in  their  native  homes." 
This  union  of  Church  and  State  controlled  the  elec- 
torate and  citizenship  of  the  colony,  made  the  school 
a  s)monym  of  both,  excluded  Cathohc  priests  and  pro- 
hibited the  entrance  of  Jesuits,  condemned  witches  to 
death,  banished  Roger  Williams  and  the  Quakers, 
estabushed  the  pillory,  and  in  other  ways  left  to  pos- 
terity many  chapters  of  uncharitableness,  intolerance, 
and  crueltv.  After  the  War  of  Independence,  the 
old  colonial  government  took  a  definite  constitutional 
form  under  the  Union,  in  1780,  and  the  first  General 
Court  of  the  sovereign  State  of  Massachusetts  con- 
vened in  October  of  that  year.  This  constitution  was 
revised  in  1820. 

C.  Catholic  ColonuaUon, — The  Plymouth  and 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colonies  were  composed  princi- 
pally of  English.  Near  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  I,  however,  the  forced  emigration  of  the  Irish 
broiight  many  of  that  race  to  these  shores;  their  num- 
ber is  hard  to  estimate,  first,  because  the  law  made  it 
obligatory  that  all  sailings  must  take  place  from  Eng- 
lish ports,  so  that  there  are  no  records  of  those  who 
came  from  Ireland  with  English  sailing  registry; 
secondly,  because  the  law,  under  heavv  penalties, 
obliged  all  Irishmen  in  certain  towns  of  Ireland  to 
take  English  surnames — ^the  name  of  some  small 
town,  of  a  colour,  of  a  particular  trade  or  office,  or  of  a 
certain  art  or  craft.  Children  in  Ireland  were  sepor 
rated  forcibly  from  their  parents  and  under  new  names 
sent  into  the  colonies.  Men  and  women,  from  Cork 
and  its  vicinity,  were  openly  sold  into  slavei^  for 
America.  Connaught,  which  was  nine-tenths  Catholic, 
was  depopulated.  Tlie  frequently  published  state- 
ment in  justification  of  Cromwell's  persecution,  that 
the  victims  of  this  white  slave-traffic  were  criminals, 
finds  no  corroboration  in  the  existence  of  a  single  penal 
colony  in  this  country.  In  1034  the  General  Court 
of  Massachusetts  Bav  also  granted  land  for  an  Irish 
settlement  on  the  banks  of  the  Merrimac  River. 
(See  Boston,  Archdiocese  or;  Irish  in  Countries 

OTHER  THAN  IRELAND,  I.) 

II.  Modern  Massachxtsbtts. — A.  StaHsHes  of 
PomikUion.  In  1630  the  population  of  Plymouth 
ana  Massachusetts  Colonies  was  estimated  at  8000 
white  people;  in  1050,  at  16,000;  in  1700,  at  70,000; 
while  m  1750  it  was  placed  at  220,000.  In  1790  the 
population  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  was  378,787; 
m  1905  it  was  3,003,680.  The  density  of  population 
increased  from  47  to  the  square  mile,  m  1790,  to  373, 
in  1905.  In  1790  over  nine-tenths  of  the  population 
Uved  in  rural  communities,  while  in  1905  less  than 
one-fourth  (22.26  per  cent)  of  the  total  population 
lived  in  communities  of  8000  or  less.  The  great  tide 
of  Irish  immigration  began  in  1847.  This  nas  since 
conspicuously  modified  the  population  of  Massachu- 
setts. In  1905  the  ratio  of  increase  in  the  native  and 
in  the  foreign-bom  of  the  population  was  6.46  per 
cent  and  8.47  per  cent  respectively;  the  number  of 
native-bom  in  tne  total  population  being  2,085,636, 
ftDd  (bat  of  the  foreign-bom  oeing;  918,044,  an  increMC 


of  the  latter  of  450 . 7  per  cent  since  1860.  This  foreign- 
bom  population  is  mostly  (83 .  91  per  cent)  in  cities  and 
towns  with  populations  ot  more  than  8000.  Ireland 
has  furnished  25 .  75  per  cent  of  the  total  foreign-bom. 
Canada  (exclusive  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  Prince  Edward  Island)  is  second,  with  a  popular 
tion  of  12 .  88  per  cent  of  the  total  foreien-bom  popula- 
tion. At  present  Russia  supplies  the  laisest  increase 
in  foreign-bom,  having  risen  from  one-hiuf  of  one  per 
cent,  in  1885,  to  6.43  per  cent,  in  1905.  Italy's  con- 
tribution in  the  same  period  rose  from  .  76  per  cent  to 
5.51  per  cent.  Almost  sixty  per  cent  of  the  entire 
population  of  Massachusetts  is  now  of  foreign  parent- 
age. In  the  cities  of  Fidl  River  and  Lawrence  it  runs 
as  high  as  four-fifths  of  the  entire  population,  while  in 
Holyoke,  Lowell,  and  Chicopee  it  is  more  than  three- 
fourths.  In  Boston  the  population  of  foreim  parent- 
Sjse  forms  69.03  per  cent,  while  at  New  Beoford  it 
rises  to  72.34  per  cent,  at  Worcester  to  65.64  per 
cent,  at  Cambridge  to  65 .  16  per  cent,  at  Wobum  to 
63 .  63  per  cent,  and  at  Salem  to  61 .  10  per  cent.  The 
Greeks  have  increased  in  Massachusetts  1242.7  per 
cent  since  1895,  a  greater  rapiditv  of  increase  than  all 
peoples  of  foreign  parentage  in  the  population.  Aus- 
tria comes  next,  and  Ital^  is  thira.  In  the  city  of 
Boston,  Irish  parentage  gives  174,770  out  of  a  totsi 
census  of  410,960  persons  of  foreign  parentage,  and 
this  nationality  predominates  in  every  ward  except  the 
eighth,  where  Russian  parentage  stands  first.  The 
transformation  in  the  racial  and  national  population 
in  Massachusetts  has  likewise  changed  the  religious 
prominence    of    the    various    denominations.    The 

g resent  order  of  denominations  in  thiB  state  is :  Catho- 
c,  69.2  per  cent;  Congr^itionalists,  7.6  per  cent; 
Baptists,  5.2  per  cent;  Methodists,  4.2  per  cent; 
Protestant  Episcopalians,  3.3  per  cent. 

B.  Economic  Conditions. — ^Massachusetts  was  not 
favoured  by  nature  for  an  agricultural  centre.  The 
soil  is  sandy  in  the  level  areas  and  clayey  in  the  hilly 
sections.  The  valleys  of  the  streams  are  rich  in  soil 
favourable  to  vegetable-  and  fruit-production.  The 
early  industries  were  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  commerce  was  the 
most  profitable  occupation,  and  after  the  declaration 
of  peace.  Massachusetts  sent  its  ships  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  The  European  wars  helped  this  eom- 
meree  greatly  until  the  War  of  1812,  with  its  embargo 
and  non-intercourse  laws,  which  forced  the  American 
vessels  to  stay  at  home.  It  had  its  recompenses, 
however,  in  the  birth  of  manufactures,  an  industry 
attempted  as  early  as  1631  and  1644,  but  subse- 
quently suppressed  bv  the  mother  countr;^.  The  first 
cotton  mill  was  established  at  Beverlv  in  1787.  It 
was  not  until  1840,  however,  that  the  cotton  and 
leather  industries  attained  permanent  leadership. 
According  to  the  published  statistics  of  1908,  Massa- 
chusetts had  6044  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  a  yearly  product  valued  at  $1,172,808,782.  The 
boot  and  shoe  industrv  was  the  leading  industry  of 
the  State,  with  a  yearlv  production  of  1213,506,562. 
This  industry  producecl  18.2  per  cent  of  the  product 
value  of  the  State,  and  one-half  of  all  the  product  in 
this  line  in  the  United  States.  The  cotton  manu- 
factures were  13.51  per  cent  of  the  State's  total  prod- 
uct. The  total  capital  devoted  to  production  in  the 
State  was  $717,787,955.  More  than  480,000  wase- 
eamers  were  employed  (323,308  males;  156,826  fe- 
males) in  the  vanous  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
State,  the  two  leading  industries  employing  35.22  per 
cent  of  the  aggregate  average  number  of  aH  employees. 
The  average  yearly  eammg  for  each  operative  is 
$501.71.  The  Massachusetts  laws  prohibit  more 
than  fifty-eieht  hours'  weekly  employment  in  xnei- 
cantile  establishments,  and  limit  the  day's  labour  to 
ten  hours.  No  woman  or  minor  can  be  employed  for 
purposes  of  manufacturing  between  the  hours  of  ten 
o'clock  p.  in.  Mid  m  o'clock  ».  m.;  no  minor  under 


MA88A0HU81TT8                        27  MA88A0BV8STT8 

eighteen  years  and  no  woman  can  be  employed  in  any  achodb  and  gave  to  them  a  false  and  fictitious  sooialy 
textile  factoiy  between  six  o'clock  p.  m.  and  six  intellectual,  and  moral  standing.  ^  The  American  In- 
o'clock  a.  m.;  no  child  under  fourteen  years  of  ace  stitute  of  Instruction  was  formed  in  1830  at  Boston  as 
can  be  employed  during  the  hours  when  the  pubEc  a  protest  against  the  low  standard  of  teaching  in  the 
schools  are  in  session,  nor  between  seven  o'clock  p.  m.  public  schools.  Three  years  prior  to  this  (1^7)  the 
and  six  o'clock  a.  m.  Children  under  fourteen  j^ears,  Legislature  had  established  the  State  Board  of  Eauca- 
and  children  over  fourteen  years  and  under  sixteen  tion,  which  remained  unchanged  in  form  until  1900. 
years,  who  cannot  read  at  sijght  and  write  I^bly  That  same  year  was  made  historic  by  the  Legislature 
simple  sentences  in  the  English  language,  shui  oe  voting  to  make  it  unlawful  to  use  the  conmion  schools, 
permitted  to  work  on  SaturaiEi3rs  between  six  o'clock  or  to  teach  anything  in  the  schoolSj  in  order  to  turn 
a.  m.  and  seven  o'clock  p.  m.  only.  Transportation  the  children  to  a  belief  in  any  particular  sect.  This 
facilities  have  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  in-  was  the  first  abow  of  strength  Unitarianism  had  mani- 
dustries.  Two  main  railroad  systems  connect  with  fested  in  Massachusetts,  and  it  has  retained  its  con- 
the  West,  and,  by  means  of  the  interstate  branches,  trol  of  the  educational  policy  of  the  state  since  that 
these  connect  with  all  the  leading  industrial  cities,  date.  In  1835  the  civil  authorities  at  Lowell  author- 
One  general  railroad  system  with  its  sub-divisions  ised  the  establishment  of  separate  Catholic  schools 
connects  with  the  South,  via  New  York.  The  means  with  Catholic  teachers  and  with  all  text-books  subject 
of  transportation  by  water  are  no  less  complete  than  to  the  pastor's  approval.  The  municipalit^r  paia  all 
those  by  rail,  and  offer  every  facility  to  bring  coal  and  the  expenses  except  the  rent  of  rooms.  Tms  experi- 
other  supplies  of  the  worla  into  connection  with  the  ment  was  a  peat  success.  The  general  wave  of  reli- 
various  railroad  terminab  for  distribution.  gious  fanaticism,  which  swept  the  country  a  few  years 
C.  Edueatum, — AU  education  in  Massachusetts  was  later,  was  responsible  for  the  acceptance  of  the  refer> 
at  first  religious.  We  read  of  the  establishment  in  endum  vote  of  21  May,  1855,  which  adopted  the  con- 
1636  of  Harvard  College,  "lest  an  illiterate  ministry  stitutional  amendment  that  ''all  moneys  thus  raised 
might  be  left  to  the  churches",  and"  to  provide  for  the  by  taxation  in  towns,  or  appropriated  by  the  state, 
instruction  of  the  people  in  piety,  morality,  and  learn-  shall  never  be  appropriatea  to  any  religious  sect  for 
ing."  The  union  of  Churcn  and  State  was  accepted,  the  maintenance  exclusively  of  its  own  schools  ".  The 
and  the  General  Court  agreed  to  give  400  poimds  to-  Ci\il  War  resulted  in  a  saner  view  of  man^  questions 
wards  the  establishment  of  the  college.  Six  years  which  had  been  blurred  by  passion  and  prejudice,  and 
later  it  was  resolved,  "taking  into  consideration  the  in  1862  (and  again  in  1880)  the  statute  taw  was  modi- 
ereat  neglect  of  many  parents  and  guardians  in  train-  fied  so  that  "  Bible  reading  is  required,  but  without 
ing  up  their  children  in  leamiiu;  and  labor  and  other  written  note  or  oral  comment j  a  pupil  is  exempt  from 
emplojrment  which  may  be  promable  to  the  Common-  taking  part  in  any  such  exercise  if  his  parent  or  guar- 
wealth  .  .  .  that  chosen  men  in  eveiy  town  are  to  dian  so  wishes;  any  version  is  allowed,  and  no  commit- 
redress  this  evil,  are  to  have  power  to  take  account  of  tee  mav  purchase  or  order  to  be  used  in  any  public 
parents,  masters,  and  of  their  children,  especially  of  school  Books  calculated  to  favor  the  tenets  of  any  par- 
their  ability  to  read  and  imderstand  the  prmciples  of  ticular  sect  of  Christians." — ^This,  in  brief,  is  the  pro- 
religion  ana  the  capital  laws  of  the  countrpr".  This  cess  by  which  the  secularisation  of  the  public  schools 
was  the  origin  of  compulsory  education  m  Massa-  came  about,  a  complete  repudiation  of  the  law  of 
chusetts.     In  1647  every  town  was  ordered,  under  1642. 

penalty  of  a  fine,  to  build  and  support  a  school  for  the  Massachusetts  has  ten  state  normal  schools  with 

double  purpose  of  religious  instruction  and  of  citiaen-  over  2000  pupils  and  a  corps  of  130  teachers.    In  the 

ship;  every  large  town  of  one  hundred  families  to  build  17,566  public  schools  there  are  524,310  pupils  with  an 

a  grammar  school  to  fit  the  youths  for  the  univernty.  average  attendance  of  92  per  cent.    The  proportion  of 

Thus  was  established  the  common  free  school.    The  teachers  is  1281  male  and  13,497  female.    The  total 

union  of  Church  and  State  was  as  pronounced  in  support  of  the  public  schools  amounts  annually  to 

education  as  in  civic  affairs.    When  the  grants  from  $14,697,774.    There  are  forty-two  academies  with  an 

the  l^islature — colonial,  provincial,  and  state— failed  enrolment  of  over  6000pupils,  and  344  private  schools 
to  meet  the  (                        i-  •  -  -   j  —  •  x 

lotteries  were 
College  from 

gregationalism  had  controlled  education  and  l^gisla-  in  Massachusetts  is  $3,512,557,604.    There  are  within 

tion,  and  the  corporation  of  Harvard  College  was  the  state  eighteen  colleges  or  universities,  six  of  them 

limited  to  state  omcials  and  a  specified  number  of  Con-  devoted  to  the  education  of  women  only.    Massachu- 

gregational  oleiig}rmen.    It  was  not  until  1843  that  setts  has  also  ei^ht  schools  of  theology,  three  law 

other  than  Congregationalists  were  eligible  for  elec-  schools,  four  medical  schools,  two  dental  schools,  one 

tion  as  overseers  of  the  college.  school  of  pharmacy,  and  three  textile  schools.    The 

The  c»iginal  system  of  state  education,  as  outlined  only  colleges  in  Massachusetts  ^except  textile  schools) 

above,  was  uninterrupted  until  the  close  of  the  Revo-  receiving  state  or  federal  subsioies  are  the  State  Agri- 

lution.    The  burdens  of  the  war,  with  its  poverty  and  cultural  Colleges  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 

taxation,  reduced  the  "grammar  schoor'  to  a  very  Technology,  the  latter  receiving  both.    The  number  of 

low  standard.    Men  of  ability  found  a  more  lucrative  public  libraries  in  Massachusetts  exceeds  that  of  any 

occupation  than  teaching.    Private  schools  sprang  other  state.    The  list  includes  2586  libraries  with  10,- 

into  existence  about  this  time,  and  the  legacies  of  810,974  volumes  valued  at  $12,657,757.    There  are 

Dummer,  Phillips,  Williston,  and  others  made  their  623  reading  rooms,  of  which  301  are  free.    There  are 

foundations  the  preparatory  schools  for  Harvard.    In  thirty  schools  for  tne  dependent  and  the  afflicted. 

1789  the  legislature  passed^  an  act  substituting  six  The  growth  of  the  Catholic  schools  has  been  nota- 

months  for  the  constant  instruction  provided  for  ble.    Besides  Holy  Cross  CoUege  at  Worcester^  and 

towns  of  fifty  families;  and  the  law  required  a  gram-  Boston  College  at  Boston,  there  are  in  the  diocese 

mar-teacher  of  deteimined  qualifications  for  towns  of  of  Boston  seventy-nine  grammar  schools  and  twenty- 

200  families,  instead  of  the  similar  requirements  for  all  six  high  schools  with  a  teaching  sts^  of  1075  persons 

towns  of  half  that  population.    In  1797  the  Legisla-  and  an  enrolment  of  52,142.    This  represents  an  in- 

ture  formally  adopted  all  the  incorporated  academies  vestment  of  more  than  $2,700,000,  a  yearly  interest  of 

as  public  state  schools,  and  thus  denominational  edu-  $135,000.    More  than  a  third  of  the  parishes  in  this 

cation  almost  entirelv  replaced  the  grammar  schools  diocese  now  maintain  parochial  schools.    In  the  Dio- 

foonded  in  1647.    The  act  of  1789  was  repealed  in  cese  of  Fall  River  there  are  over  12,000  pupils  in  28 

1824.    This  aided  greatly  the  private  denominational  parochial  schools,  besides  a  commercial  sdiool  with 


1SA88A0HUSETT8 


28 


MASSAOHUSBTTS 


363  pupils.    In  the  Diooeae  of  Springfield  there  are 
24^2  pupils  in  56  parochial  schoob. 

D.  Laws  affecting  Religion  and  Morals. — ^Elsewhere 
in  this  article  we  have  traced  colonial  laws  and  legisla- 
tion. The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  gave 
religious  liberty.  The  State  Constitution  of  1780  im- 
posed a  religious  test  as  a  qualification  for  office  and  it 
authorized  the  legislature  to  tax  the  towns,  if  neces- 
sary, "  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public  Prot- 
estant teachers  ofpiety,  religion,  and  morality  ".  The 
former  law  was  repealed  in  1821,  and  the  latter  in 
1833.  Complete  religious  equality  has  existed  since 
the  latter  date.  The  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day  is 
amply  safeguarded,  but  entertainments  for  charitable 
puiposes  given  by  charitable  or  religious  societies  are 
permitted.  The  keeping  of  open  shop  or  engaging  in 
work  or  business  not  for  charitable  purposes  is  forbid- 
den. Many  of  the  rigid  laws  of  colonial  dajrs  are  yet 
unrepealed.  There  is  no  law  authorizing  the  use  of 
prayer  in  the  Legislature;  custom,  however,  has  made 
It  a  rule  to  open  each  session  with  prayer.  This  same 
custom  has  become  the  rule  in  opening  the  several  sit- 
tings of  the  higher  courts.  Catnolic  priests  have  offi- 
ciated at  times  at  the  former.  The  present  Arch- 
bishop of  Boston  offered  pra3rer  at  the  opening  of  at 
least  one  term  of  the  Superior  Court,  bemg  the  first 
Catholic  to  perform  this  office.  The  courts  and  the 
judiciary  have  full  power  to  administer  oaths. 

The  legal  holidays  in  Massachusetts  are  22  Feb- 
ruary, 19  April  (Patriots'  Day),  30  May,  4  July, 
the  first  Monday  in  Septembier  (Labor  Day),  12 
Oct.  (Columbus  Day),  Thanksgiving  Day,  and  Cluist- 
mas  Day.  The  hst  does  not  include  Good  Fri- 
day. The  seal  of  confession  is  not  recognized  by 
law,  although  in  practice  sacramental  confession 
is  generally  treated  as  a  privileged  conversation. 
Incor|}oration  of  churches  and  of  charitable  institu- 
tions is  authorized  by  statute.  Such  organizations 
may  make  their  own  laws  and  elect  their  own  officers. 
Every  religious  society  so  organized  shall  constitute  a 
bod^r  corporate  with  the  powers  given  to  corporations. 
Section  44,  chapter  36,  ot  the  Public  Statutes  provide 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  or  bishop,  the 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  and  the  pastor  of  the 
church  for  the  time  being,  or  a  majority  of  these^  may 
associate  with  themselves  two  laymen,  communicants 
of  the  church,  may  form  a  body  corporate,  the  signers 
of  the  certificate  of  incorporation  becoming  the  trus- 
tees. Such  corporations  may  receive,  hold,  and  man- 
age all  real  and  personal  property  belonging  to  the 
church,  sell,  transfer,  hold  truists,  bequests,  etc.,  but 
all  property  beion^g  to  any  church  or  parish,  or  held 
by  sucn  a  corporation,  shall  never  exceed  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  exclusive  of  church  buildings.  All 
church  property  and  houses  of  religious  worship  (ex- 
cept that  part  of  such  houses  appropriated  for  pur- 
poses other  than  religious  worship  or  instruction)  are 
exempt  from  taxation.  This  exemption  extends  to 
the  property  of  literary,  benevolent,  charitable,  and 
scientific  institutions,  and  temperance  societies;  also  to 
legacies,  cemeteries,  and  tomos.  Clerg3rmen  are  ex- 
empt from  service  as  constables,  from  jury  service, 
ana  service  in  the  militia.  Clergymen  are  permittea 
by  law  to  have  access  to  prisoners  after  death  sen- 
tence, and  are  among  those  designated  as  "officials" 
who  may  be  present  at  executions.  The  statutes  pro- 
hibit marriage  between  relatives,  and  recognize  mar- 
riage by  civil  authorities  and  by  nibbis.  The  statu- 
tory grounds  for  divorce  recognized  are  adultery, 
impotency,  desertion  continued  for  three  consecutive 
years,  coimrmed  habits  of  intoxication  by  liauor. 
opium,  or  drugs,  cruel  and  abusive  treatment;  also  it 
either  party  is  sentenced  for  life  to  hard  labour,  or 
five  or  more  years  in  state  prison,  jail,  or  house  of 
correction.  The  Superior  Court  hears  all  divorce  li- 
bels. After  a  decree  of  divorce  has  become  absolute, 
either  party  may  marry  again  as  if  the  other  were 


dead;  except  that  the  party  from  whom  th/A  decree 
was  granted  shall  not  marry  within  two  ypars.  The 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  regulated  bv  /aw.  Each 
community,  city,  or  town  votes  annually  upon  the 
(Question,  whether  or  not  licence  to  sell  ]<quor  shall  be 
issued  in  that  municipality.  Special  'joards  are  ap- 
pointed to  regulate  tne  conditions  Oi  such  licences. 
The  number  of  licences  that  may  be  granted  in  each 
town  or  city  is  limited  to  one  to  each  thousand  per- 
sons, though  Boston  has  a  limitation  of  one  licence  to 
each  five  hundred  of  the  population.  The  hours  of 
opening  and  closing  bars  are  regulated  by  law.    Any 

Eerson  owning  property  can  object  to  the  granting  of  a 
cence  to  sell  mtoxicating  liquors  within  twenty-five 
'  feet  of  his  property.    A  licence  cannot  be  granted  to 
sell  intoxicating  liquors  on  the  same  street  as,  or  within 
four  hundred  feet  of,  a  public  school. 

E.  Religious  Libertt/. — In  the  beginning  Massachu- 
setts was  Puritan  agamst  the  Catholic  first,  against  all 
non-conformists  to  their  version  of  established  reli- 
gion next.  The  Puritan  was  narrow  in  mind  and  for 
the  most  part  limited  in  education,  a  type  of  man 
swa^red  easily  to  extremes.  England  was  at  that  pe- 
riod intensely  anti-papal.  In  Massachusetts,  however, 
the  antipatny  early  oecame  racial:  first  against  the 
French  Catholic,  later  against  the  Irish  Catholic.  This 
racial  religious  bigotry  has  not  disappeared  wholly  in 
Massachusetts.  Within  the  pale  of  tne  Church  racial 
schisms  have  been  instigated  from  time  to  time  in 
order  that  the  defeat  of  Catholicism  might  be  accom- 
plished when  open  antagonism  from  without  failed  to 
accomplish  the  end  sought.  In  politics  it  is  often 
the  effective  shibboleth.  Congregationalism  soon  took 
form  in  the  colony  and  as  early  as  1631  all  except  Puri- 
tans were  excluded  by  law  from  the  freedom  of  the 
body  politic.  In  1647  the  law  became  more  specific 
and  excluded  priests  from  the  colony.  This  act  was 
reaffirmed  in  1770.  Bowdoin  College  nreserves  the 
cross  and  Harvard  College  the  "  Indian  Dictionary  "  of 
Sebastian  Rasle,  the  priest  executed  under  the  provi- 
sion of  the  law.  In  1746  a  resolution  and  meeting 
at  Faneuil  Hall  bear  testimony  that  Catholics  must 
prove^  as  well  as  affirm,  their  loyalty  to  the  colony. 
Washmgton  himself  was  called  upon  to  suppress  the 
insult  of  Pope  Day  at  the  siege  of  Boston.  Each  of 
these  events  was  preceded  by  a  wave  of  either  French 
or  Irish  immigration,  a  circumstance  which  was  re- 
peated in  the  religious  fanaticism  of  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Cause  and  effect  seem  well  es- 
tablished and  too  constant  to  be  incidental.  In  all  the 
various  anti-CathoUc  uprisings,  from  colonial  times  to 
the  present,  there  is  not  one  instance  where  the  Catho- 
lics were  the  aggressors  by  word  or  deed:  their  pati- 
ence and  forbearance  have  always  been  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  conduct  of  their  non-Catholic  contem- 
poraries. In  every  one  of  the  North  Atlantic  group  of 
states,  the  Catholics  now  constitute  the  most  numerous 
religious  denomination.  In  Massachusetts  the  num- 
ber of  the  leading  denominations  is  as  follows:  Catho- 
lics 1,373  752;  Congregationaliste  119,196;  Baptists 
80,894;  Methodists  65,498;  Protestant  Episcopalians 
51,636;  Presbyterians  8559. 

F.  Catholic  Progress. — Throughout  the  account  of 
the  doings  among  the  colonists,  tncre  are  references  to 
the  coming,  short  stay,  and  departure  of  some  Irish 
priest  or  French  Jesuit.  In  the  newspaper  account  of 
the  departure  of  the  French  from  Boston,  in  1782,  it 
is  related  that  the  clergy  and  the  selectmen  paraded 
through  the  streets  preceded  by  a  cross-bearer.  It 
was  some  fifty  years  later  that  the  prosperity  and 
activity  of  the  Church  aroused  political  demagoguery 
and  religious  bieotry.  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  New 
York  and  Philadelphia,  experienced  the  storm:  a  con- 
vent was  burned,  churches  were  threatened,  monu- 
ments to  revered  heroes  of  the  Church  were  razed,  and 
cemeteries  desecrated.  The  consoling  memory,  how- 
ever, of  this  period,  is  that  Massachusetts  furnished 


29 


the  Otiaes,  the  Lees,  the  Perkinses,  EverettSt  and 
Lorings— flJl  non-Catnolics — whose  voices  and  pens 
were  enlisted  heartily  in  the  cause  of  justice,  tolera- 
tion, and  unity. 

In  1843,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  were  set  off 
from  the  original  Diocese  of  Boston.  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire,  also  under  the  jimsdiction  of  Boston,  were 
made  a  new  diocese  ten  years  later,  with  the  episcopal 
see  at  Portland.  This  was  the  period  of  the  great 
Irish  immigration,  and  Boston  received  a  large  quota. 
This  new  influx  was,  as  in  the  previous  century,  looked 
upon  as  an  "intrusion"  and  tne  usual  result  followed. 
New  England  had  now  become  what  Lowell  was  pleased 
to  call  *  'New  Ireland  ".  This  religious  and  racial  tiuns- 
formation,  made  the  necessity  for  churches,  academies, 
schools,  asylums,  priests,  and  teachers  an  imperative 
one.  The  work  of  expansion,  both  material  and 
spiritual,  went  forward  apace.  The  great  influx  of 
Ganadian  Catholics  added  much  to  the  Catholic 
population,  which  had  now  reached  more  than  a 
million  souls — over  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  the  total  re- 
ligious population  of  the  state.  The  era  was  not  with- 
out its  reli^ous  strife,  this  time  within  public  and 
charitable  institutions,  state  and  municipal.  This 
chapter  reads  like  those  efforts  of  proselytising  in  the 
colonial  days  when  names  of  Catholic  children  were 
changed,  paternity  denied,  maternity  falsified — all  in 
the  hope  of  destroying  the  true  reUgious  inheritance 
of  the  state's  wards.  The  influende  of  CathoUcs  in  the 
governing  of  institutions,  libraries,  and  schools  has 
since  then  increased  somewhat.  The  spiritual  necessi- 
ties of  the  vast  Catholic  communities  are  provided 
for  abundantly;  orphans  are  well  housed;  imfortu- 
nates  securely  protected;  the  i>oor  greatly  succoured; 
and  the  sick  have  the  sacraments  at  their  very  door. 
Schools,  academies,  colleges,  and  convents,  wherein 
Catholic  education  is  given,  are  now  within  the  reach 
of  all.  The  whole  period  of  Archbishop  Williams's 
administration  (1866-1907)  has  been  appropriately 
called  "the  brick  and  mortar  age  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  New  England''.  (See  Boston,  Archdiocese 

OF.) 

Upon  the  death  of  Archbishop  Williams,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1907,  his  coadjutor,  the  Most  Reverend  William 
H.  O'Connell,  D.D.  (the  present  archbishop),  was 
promoted  to  the  metropolitan  see.  This  arcnbishop 
invited  the  National  Convention  of  the  Federation  of 
CatlioUc  Societies  to  meet  in  Boston  with  resulting 
interest,  activity,  and  strength  to  that  society,  in 
which,  indeed,  he  has  shown  a  special  interest.  To 
develop  the  solidarity  of  priests  and  people,  of  races 
and  nations,  of  the  cultured  and  the  unlettered — a 
unity  of  all  the  interests  of  the  Church,  the  arch- 
bishop needed  a  free  press :  he  purchased ' '  The  Pilot", 
secured  able  and  fearless  writers  and  placed  it  at  a 
nominal  cost  within  the  reach  of  all.  The  dangers  to 
the  immigrant  in  a  new  and  fascinating  environment 
are  all  anticipated,  and  safeguards  are  ceing  strength- 
ened daily.  At  the  same  time,  the  inherited  mis- 
understanding of  Puritan  Massachusetts,  and  the 
evil  machinations  of  those  who  would  use  religion  and 
charity  for  selfish  motives  or  aggrandizement  are  still 
active.  The  Catholic  mind  is  aroused,  however,  and 
the  battle  for  truth  is  being  waged ;  Catholic  Massachu- 
setts moves  forward,  all  under  one  banner — French 
Canadian,  Italian,  Pole,  German,  Portuguese,  Greek, 
Scandinavian,  and  Irish — each  vying  with  the  other 
for  an  opportunity  to  prove  his  loyalty  to  the 
Church,  to  its  priests,  and  to  their  spiritual  leader. 
In  every  diocese  and  in  each  coimty  well-organized 
favaachoB  of  the  Federation  exist,  temperance  and 
church  sodeties  flourish,  educational  and  charitable 
associations  are  alive  and  active.  The  Churoh's 
ablest  laymen  are  enlisted,  and  all  are  helping  mightily 
to  accomplish  ^e  avowed  intention  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Boston,  to  make  Massachusetts  the  leading  Catholic 
state  in  the  country.    (See  also  Cheterub,  Jean 


Louis  de;  Boston,  Archdiocese  of;  Faix  Rtver, 
Diocese  op;  Springfield,  Diocese  of.) 

Austin,  Hidory  of  MaaBoehtuetta  (Boston,  1876);  BAircROPr, 
HiHoru  of  the  United  States,  I  (London,  1883-84);  Bariiy,  Hie- 
tory  of  New  Englandt  1  (Boston.  1856);   Boeton  Toten  Reeorda 

i Boston,  1772);  BRXDroRD,  Hietory  of  Plymouth  Plantation; 
)avib,  The  New  England  States,  III  (Boston,  1897);  Draxs, 
The  Making  of  New  England,  1684-1643  (New  York.  1886) ; 
D WIGHT,  Travels  in  New  England,  I  (New  Haven.  1821).  22: 
Emerson,  Education  in  Massachusetts,  Massachusetts  Historical 
Collection  CBoBtou,  1869);  'B.AiJ^,Reviewof  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Nunnery  Committee  (Boston.  1855);  Harrington,  Htstory  of 
Harvard  Medical  School,  III  (New  York,  1905);  /ruA  Historical 
Proceedings.  II  (Boston,  1899):  Lsahy.  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  New  England  States,  1  (Boston,  1899);  MassachusetU 
Historical  Society,  Collection,  Ist  ser.,  V  (Boston.  1788);  Pro- 
ceedings, 2d  ser.,  Ill  (Boston,  1810);  McGbb,  7A«  Irish  Settler* 
in  America  (Boston,  1851);  Parkbr,  The  First  Charter  and 
Vie  Early  Religious  Legislation  of  Massachusetts,  Massachusetts 
Historical  Collection  (1869);  Walsh.  TAs  Early  Irish  Catholic 
Schools  of  Lowell,  Mass,,  1856-1866  (Boston,  1901);  Idbm,  Am, 
Cath.  Q.  Rev,  (January,  1904). 

Thomas  F.  Harrington. 

Massaia,  Guglielmo,  Cardinal,  b.  9  June,  1809,  at 
Piova  in  Piedmont,  Italy;  d.  at  Cremona,  6  August. 
1889.  His  baptismal  name  was  Lorenzo;  that  ol 
Guglielmo  was  given  him  when  he  became  a  religious. 
He  was  first  educated  at  the  Collegio  Reale  at  Asti  un- 
der the  care  of  his  elder  brother  Guglielmo,  a  canon 
and  precentor  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  On  the 
death  of  his  brother  he  passed  as  a  student  to  the  dio- 
cesan seminary;  but  at  the  age  of  sixteen  entered  the 
Capuchin  Franciscan  Order,  receiving  the  habit  on  26 
September,  1825.  Immediately  after  his  ordination 
to  the  priesthood,  he  was  appointed  lector  of  theology; 
but  even  whilst  teaching  he  acquired  some  fame  as  a 
preacher  and  was  chosen  confessor  to  Prince  Victor 
Emmanuel,  afterwards  King  of  Italy,  and  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Genoa.  The  royal  family  of  Piedmont  would 
have  nominated  him  on  several  occasions  to  an  episco- 

Sal  see,  but  he  strenuously  opposed  their  project,  oeing 
esirous  of  joining  the  foreign  missions  of  his  order. 
He  obtained  his  wish  in  1846.  That  year  the  Con- 
gregation of  Propaganda,  at  the  instance  of  the  travel- 
er Antoine  d'Abbadie,  aetermined  to  establish  a  Vi- 
cariate-ApostoIic  for  the  Gallas  in  Abyssinia.  The 
mission  was  confided  to  the  Capuchins,  and  Massaia 
was  appointed  first  vicar-apostolic,  and  was  consecrated 
in  Rome  on  24  May  of  tnat  year.  On  his  arrival  in 
Abyssinia  he  found  the  country  in  a  state  of  religious 
agitation.  The  heretical  Coptic  bishop,  Cyril,  was 
dead  and  there  was  a  movement  amongst  the  Copts 
towards  imion  with  Rome.  Massaia,  who  had  re- 
ceived plenary  faculties  from  the  pope,  ordained  a 
number  of  native  priests  for  the  Coptic  Rite:  he  also 
obtained  the  appointment  by  the  Holy  See  of  a  vicar- 
apostolic  for  tne  Copts,  and  himself  consecrated  the 
missionary  Giustino  de  Jacobis  to  this  office.  But 
this  act  aroused  the  enmity  of  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of 
Effypt,  who  sent  a  bishop  of  his  own,  Abba  Salama,  to 
Abyssinia.  As  a  result  of  the  ensuing  political  agita- 
tion, Massaia  was  banished  from  the  country  and  had  to 
flee  under  an  assumed  name.  In  1850  he  visited  Europe 
to  gain  a  fresh  band  of  missionaries  and  means  to  develop 
his  work:  he  had  interviews  with  the  French  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Paris,  and  with  Lord  Palmerston 
in  London.  On  his  return  to  the  Gallas  he  founded  a 
larffe  number  of  missions;  he  also  established  a  school 
at  Marseilles  for  the  education  of  Galla  boys  whom  he 
had  freed  from  slavery;  besides  this  he  composed  a 
grammar  of  the  Galla  language  which  was  published  at 
Marseilles  in  1867.  Dunng Tus  thirty-five  years  as  a 
missionary  he  was  exiled  seven  times,  but  he  always 
returned  to  his  labours  with  renewed  vigour.  How- 
ever, in  1880  he  was  compelled  by  ill-health  to  resign 
his  mission.  In  recognition  of  his  merit,  Leo  XIlI 
raised  him  to  the  titular  Archbishopric  of  Stauropolis, 
and  on  10  November,  1884,  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
of  the  title  of  S.  Vitalis.  At  the  command  of  the  pope 
he  wrote  an  account  of  his  missionary  labours,  under 
the  title,  "I  miei  trentacinque  anni  di  missione  nell' 


kite  EtiopiA  ",  the  firat  volume  of  which  was  publiahed 
simultaneously  at  Rome  and  Milan  in  1883,  and  the 
last  in  1895.  In  this  work  he  deals  not  only  with  the 
progresa  of  the  mission,  but  with  the  political  and 
economic  conditions  of  AbysHiDta  aa  he  Imew  them. 

K naa*ix.  r  min  IrtmJaaii^ut  ama  eto.;  AnalactaOr^mu  FF. 
ItHL  Capp..  V,  2B1  leq. 

Pather  Cuthbbbt. 

a  the 
ocw,  ui  Tuscany,  first  mention 
the  eighth  century.    It  grew  at  the  expense  of  Popu- 
Ionia,  an  ancient  city  of  the  Etruscans,  the  principal 
port  oi  that  people,  and  important  on  account  of  its 
&on,  tin,  mill  oopper  works.    Populonia  waA  besieged 
by  Sulla,  and  m  Strabo's  time  was  already  deca- 
dent: later  it  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Totila,  of  the 
Lombards,  and  in  817  of  a  Bysantine  fleet.   After  this, 
the  bi^op«  of  Populonia  abandoned  the  town,  and  in 
the  eleventh  century,  establislwd  their  lesidenae  at 
Hassa.      In   1226 
Hassa  became  a  com- 
mune under  the  pro- 
tection of  Pisa.     In 
1307  it  made  an  al- 
liance   with    Siena, 
which  was  the  cause 
of   many   wars  be- 
tween the   two    re- 
publics that  brought 
about  the  deudence 
of  MasHi.    The  town 
has  a  fine  cathedral. 
-  The  first  knownBish- 
op  of  Populonia  was 
Atellus  (about  495); 
another  was    Sunt 
Cerboniua  (646) ,  pro- 
tector of  the  city,  to 
whom  Saint  Gren>ry 
refers   in    his    Dia- 
logues.    Among  the 
bishops     of     Massa 


(Ngw  York.  leOB). 


T.  J.  Caupbeix. 


former  general  of  the 
Franciscans,  and 
k^le  of  Boniface  IX;  Leonardo  Dati  (1467),  author 
<rf  poetic  satires;  AlessandroPetrucci  (1601),  who  em- 
beOished  the  cathedral  and  the  episcopal  puaoe;  the 
Camaldolese  Eusebio  da  Ciani  (1719),  who  governed 
the  diocese  for  fifty-one  years.  This  see  was  at  first 
suffragan  of  Pisa,  but  since  1458  of  Siena.  It  has  29 
parishes.  66,200  inhabitants,  one  religious  house  of 
men  and  four  of  women, 

CuriLLBTTT,  L4  Chief  iTIIalia,  XVII  (Vsuob.  IM3). 

U.  BENiam. 

Hasi  Book.    See  Hissal. 

1Iub4,  Enbuond,  one  of  the  first  Jesuits  sent  to 
New  France;  b.  at  Lyons,  1574;  d.  atSilleiy,  12May, 
1646.  He  went  to  Acadia  with  Father  Biard,  and 
when  it  was  found  impoesible  to  effect  any  good  there, 
they  established  a  new  mission  at  tbe  present  Bar 
Harbor,  Maine,  which  was  soon  after  destroyed  by  the 
English—Ma^  bdnx  set  adrift  on  the  sea  in  an  open 
boat.  He  succeedea  in  reaching  a  French  ship  and 
returned  to  France,  In  1625  he  acain  set  sail  for 
Canada,  and  remained  there  until  the  fall  of  Quebec. 
He  returned  a  third  time  in  1632,  but,  as  be  was  then 
advanced  in  age,  he  no  longer  laboured  among  the 
savages,  but  lived  mostly  at  Sillery,  which  he  butlt  as 
a  reservation  for  the  converted  Indians,  A  monu- 
ment has  recently  been  erected  to  his  honour  at  this 
place  on  the  site  of  the  old  Jeeuit  ohureh  which  stood 
on  the  bank  of  the  St.  lAwrance  a  short  distance  above 
Quebec. 

n.  n — n,  £m  Jttuittt  It  ta  ''  •*  (X 


Mmsm,    Bbqcbotb    roR    (Canada.}— The    law 

governing  bequests,  being  concerned  with  "property 
and  civil  rights",  falls  within  the  l^slative   com- 

ency  of  the  provincEal  legislatures,  not  of  the 
union  Parliament.  The  basic  law  in  all  the  prov- 
inces is,  however,  not  the  same.  Any  question  con- 
cerning bequests  is,  thetefore,  one  of  provinciaJ,  not 
Dominion  law.  There  is  no  statute  enacted  by  any 
of  the  legislaturee  specially  affecting  bequests  for 

Quebec. — In  this  province  there  is  no  question  of 
the  validity  of  such  bequests.  The  b«sic  law  is  the 
French  law  aa  in  force  in  the  province  at  the  time  of 
the  cession  (1759-6.'!).  Whether  such  bequests  were 
or  are  valid  under  English  statutory  or  Common  Law, 
is  immaterial.  Under  article  869  of  the  Civil  Code  a 
testator  may  make 
bequest*  for  chari- 
table or  other  laic/vi 
Surposes.  The  free- 
om  of  the  practice 
of  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion being  not  only 
recogniied  but  guar- 
anteed, as  well  under 
theTreatyof  Cession 
(1763)  as  under  the 
terms  of  the  Quebec 
Act  (1774),  and  sub- 
sequent Provincial 
Legislation  (14  &  IS 
Vic,  Can.,  c.  175) 
having  confirmed 
that  freedom,  a  be- 
quest for  the  saj-ing 
of  Masses  is  clearly 
for  a  lawfvl  purpose. 
Ontorio,— In  this 
province  the  law  of 
England,  as  in  force 
on  15  October,  1792, 

,  introduced    "so   far 

as  it  was  not  from 
local  circumstances  inapplicable",  under  powers 
conferred  by  the  statute  of  1791,  which  divided 
the  old  Province  of  Quebec  into  Lower  and  Upper 
Canada,  is  the  basic  law.  That  Act  preserved  to 
Roman  Catholics  in  Upper  Canada  the  rights  as  re- 
gards their  religion  secured  to  them  under  the  Act  of 
1774.  The  provincial  legislation  dted  as  regards 
Quebec  being  enacted  after  the  reunion  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada,  was  also  law  in  this  province.  The 
validity  of  bequests  for  the  saying  of  Masses  was  up- 
held in  the  case  of  Elmsley  and  Madden  (18  Grant 
Chan.  R.  386).  The  court  held  that  the  English  law, 
as  far  as  under  it  such  dispositions  may  tmve  been 
invaUd,  was  inapplicable  under  the  circumstsjices  of 
the  province,  wherein  the  Catholic  religion  was  toler- 
ated. This  case  has  been  accepted  as  settUng  the  law. 
Britiah  Columbia,  Manitoba,  Alberta,  and  Saxkatche- 
imn. — In  British  Columbia  the  civil  law  of  England, 
as  it  existed  on  19  November,  1858,  and  in  the  three 
other  of  these  provinces,  that  law  as  it  existed  on  15 
July,  1870,  "so  far  as  not  from  local  circumstances 
inapplicable",  is  the  basic  law.  The  Ontario  judg- 
ment above  cited  is  in  practice  accepted  as  settling  the 
question  under  consideration. 

In  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunmrick,  and  Prince  Edward 
Island,  though  there  is  no  statutory  enactment  mak- 
ing the  English  law  applicable,  it  has,  since  the  acoui- 
sition  of  Acadia  by  Great  Britain,  been  recognized  aa 
being  in  force.  In  these  provinces,  however,  that  law 
in  so  far  as  it  may  treat  as  void  dispodtions  for  tbe 


Uasba  ILuuTTniA 


MASSES  31  MASSES 

• 

l^mrpoee  in  question  as  being  for  eruperstitiouB  uses,  has  reign  was  giTen  to  the  crown.    Hiere  is  a  series  of 

always  been  treated  as  inapplicable.    The  validity  of  cases  on  the  question  decided  under  Elisabeth,  nota- 

such  bequests  was  maintamed  in  an  elaborate  judg-  bly  that  of  Adams  v.  Lambert,  decided  in  1602,  in  the 

ment  of  Hodgins,  Master  of  the  RoUs,  in  an  unreported  report  of  which  the  other  cases  are  cited.    Some  of 

case  of  Gillis  and  Gillis  in  Prince  £dward  Ldand  in  these  decisions  are  sliditly  conflicting,  but  the  main 

1S94.  Chab.  J.  DoHEBTT.  points  to  be  drawn  mm  the  series  are,  first,   that 

X  «  *  -L  ^^^^  ^^^  Masses  or  prayers  for  the  dead  were  held  to 
MaB868,  Bequssts  for  (Engiand).— Before  the  be  superstitions  and  unlawful,  but,  second,  that  the 
Refonnation  dispositions  of  property,  whether  real  or  question  of  their  unlawfulness  was  considered  accord- 
personal,  for  the  purposes  of  Masses,  were  valid,  imless  ing  as  they  came  within  the  provisions  of  the  Statute 
where,  in  the  case  of  real  property,  they  mig^t  happen  i  Edward  VI,  c.  14.  In  that  and  the  following  cen- 
to conflict  with  the  Mortmam  laws  by  being  made  to  tury  the  Catholic  religion  was  proscribed  and  any  de- 
rdigious  congregations.  There  was  a  tenure  of  land  vise  or  bequest  for  the  promotion  of  it  was  illegal  and, 
known  as  tenure  by  divine  service,  an  incident  of  as  regarded  the  purpose  thereof,  void  (Re  Lady  Por- 


intestate  should  be  able  to  recover  by  action  debts  purposes  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Catholic  religion, 
due  to  the  intestate  and  that  they  should  administer  But  dispositions  for  Cat^oUc  poor  or  Catholic  schools 
and  dispense  for  the  soul  of  the  dead.  The  wills  of  or  other  Catholic  purposes  which  mi^t  come  under 
various  great  people  who  lived  in  those  ages  contain  the  general  construction  of  "diarity",^  passed  to  the 
bequests  for  Biasses.  Henry  VII  left  £260  for  10,000  crown  to  be  devoted  to  other  lawful  charitable  pur- 
Masses  to  be  said  for  his  and  other  souls.  The  will  of  poses  (Cary  v.  Abbot  above).  In  1829  the  Roman 
Henry  VIII,  made  on  30  December,  1646,  contains  a  Catholic  Relief  Act  was  passed,  which  contained,  how- 
provision  for  an  altar  over  his  tomb  in  St.  George's  ever,  in  some  of  its  sections  still  unrepealed,  certain 
Qiapel  in  Windsor,  where  daily  Mass  shall  be  said  '  as  penal  provisions  against  members  of  rehgious  orders  of 
long  as  the  worid  snail  indure'',  and  it  sets  out  a  grant  men  by  reason  of  which  ihe  status  of  t£ese  orders  in 
to  Sie  dean  and  canons  of  the  chapel  of  lands  to  the  the  United  Kingdom  is  illegal.  In  1832  the  Roman 
value  of  £600  a  year  for  ever  to  find  two  priests  to  say  Catholic  Charities  Act  (2  and  3  William  IV,  c.  1 15) 
Mass  and  to  keep  four  obits  yeariy  and  to  give  alms  for  was  passed.  By  it  Catholics  were,  as  re^rds  their 
the  King's  soul:  and  it  contains  other  provisions  for  charitable  purposes,  put  in  the  same  position  as  that 
requiem  masses  and  prayers  for  his  soul.  But  in  a.  d.  of  Protesttmt  dissenters.  Therefore  now,  seemingly, 
1531,  by  the  statute  23,  Henry  VIII,  c.  10,  all  subse-  a  bequest  for  the  celebration  of  Masses  with  no  inten- 
quent  assurances  or  dispositions  of  land  to  the  use  of  a  tion  tor  souls  departed  would  be  valid .  and,  moreover, 
perpetual  obit  (i.  e.  a  service  for  the  dead  to  be  cele-  it  would  constitute  a  good  charitable  bequest,  and  so, 
brated  at  certain  fixed  periods)  or  the  continual  ser-  it  woiild  be  valid  thou^  made  in  perpetuity  (Re 
vice  of  a  priest  were  to  be  void  if  the  use  was  to  extend  Michel's  Trusts,  1860,  28  Beav.  42).  But  it  has  been 
over  more  than  twenty  years,  but  if  the  use  was  lim-  held  that  the  act  has  not  validated  bequests  for  re- 
lied to  that  or  a  less  period  the  dispositions  were  to  be  quiem  Masses^that  the  law  still  regards  them  as  ''su- 
valid.  That  even  private  Masses  were  at  that  time  perstitious"  (West  v.  Shuttleworth  above),  that  thejr 
approved  by  the  state  is  shown  by  the  six  articles  do  not  constitute  charitable  bequests  and  that,  accora- 
passed  in  a.  d.  1639  (32  Heni^  VIII,  c.  14),  which  con-  ing^y,  the  property  j^ven  under  them  passes  to  the 
stituted  the  denial  of  their  expediency  a  felony,  person  otherwise  entitled  (Heath  v.  Chapman  above). 
Henry  VIII  died  28  January  a.  d.  1647.  The  This  is  the  position  of  the  law  to-day  with  the  ex- 
change of  religion  became  much  more  marked  in  the  oeption  made  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Charities  Act, 
following  reign,  and  the  government  fostered  the  es-  i860,  which  provides  that  no  lawful  devise  or  beouest 
tablii^iment  m  Eng^d  of  the  Protestant  doctrines  to  any  Catholic  or  Catholic  Charity  is  to  be  invalioated 
which  had  begun  to  spread  on  the  continent.  In  the  because  the  estate  devised  or  bequeathed  is,  also,  sub- 
Bame  year  the  Six  Articles  were  repealed  and  the  Stat-  ject  to  any  trust  deemed  to  be  superstitious  or  pro- 
ute  of  Chaimtries  (1  Edward  VI,  c.  14)  was  passed  hibited  through  being  to  religious  orders  of  men,  but 
from  whidi  the  invalidity  of  bequests  for  requiem  such  latter  trust  may  be  apportioned  by  the  Court  or 
Masses  has  been  deduced .  The  preamble  to  the  stat-  the  Charity  Commissioners  to  some  other  lawful  Catho^ 
ute  recites  that ''  a  great  part  of  the  superstition  and  lie  charitable  trust.  Thus,  a  trust  for  requiem  Masses 
errors  in  the  Christian  religion  hath  been  brought  into  is  as  such  invalid,  and  where  no  question  of  apportion- 
the  minds  and  estimation  of  men  by  reason  of  the  ment  can  arise,  for  instance,  where  there  is  a  roecific 
isnoranoe  of  their  very  true  and  perfect  salvation  legacy  of  money  for  the  purpose  only  of  such  Masses, 
iStou^  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ  and  by  devising  and  the  estate  which  is  subject  to  the  trust  does  not  pass  to 
phantasying  vain  opinions  of  purgatory  and  masses  any  charity  but  to  the  person  otherwise  entitled  to  it 
satisfactory  to  be  done  for  them  which  be  departed,  (Re  Fleetwood,  Sidgreaves  v.  Brewer,  1880, 16  Ch.  D. 
the  which  doctrine  and  vain  opinion  by  nothing  more  609).  Also,  a  legacy  for  requiem  Masses  is  invalid 
is  maintained  and  upholden  than  by  the  abuse  of  tren-  even  though  the  legacy  be  payable  in  a  countrv  where 
tals,chauntries  and  other  provisions  made  for  the  con-  it  would  be  legally  valid  (Re  Elliot,  1891,  39  W.  R. 
tinuanoe  of  the  said  blindness  and  ignorance. "  The  297).  The  grounas  on  which  this  position  of  the  law 
statute,  after  fiulher  reciting  that  the  property  given  is  based  appear  rather  unsatisfactory.  Admittedly, 
to  such  uses  ou^t  to  be  devoted  to  the  founding  of  there  is  no  direct  statutory  ill^lity.  In  the  case  of 
schools  and  other  good  purposes,  enacted  that  prop-  Heath  v.  Chapman  (above)  iundersley  V.  C.  stated 
erty  given  to  such  uses,  whicn  had  been  so  usedwithm  that  the  Statute  I  Edward  VI,  c.  14,  assumed  that 
the  preceding  five  years,  should  be  given  to  the  king,  trusts  for  Masses  were  already  iUeeal — ^that  they  were 
Hie  statute  only  applied  to  past  dispositions  of  prop-  in  fact  so — and  that  the  statute  Has  stamped  on  all 
erty  and  it  did  not  declare  the  general  illegality  of  be-  such  trusts,  whether  made  before  or  since  it,  the  char- 
quests  for  requiem  Masses,  nor  has  any  other  statute  acter  of  illegality  on  the  ground  of  being  superstitious, 
ever  so  declared  (Cary  v.  Abbot,  1802,  7  Ves.  496).  Seeing  that  the  statute  was  passed  in  tne  year  of  the 
NeverthdesB,  Uie  establishment  of  that  principle  has  death  of  Heni^y  VIII,  within  eig^t  years  of  the  passing 
been  deducea  from  it  (West  v.  Shuttleworth,  1836,  2  of  the  Six  Articles,  and  that  during  that  time  there  had 
M.  db  K.  679;  Heath  v.  CSiapman,  1864, 2  Drew  423).  been  no  statutory  abolition  of  the  Mass  or  condemna- 
Jhe  statute  was  not  repealed  under  Mary,  and  by  1  tion  of  the  doctrme  of  pui]gpatory,  it  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
QiSv  c*  94,  all  property  devoted  to  such  uses  in  Mary's  oem  bow  the  legal  invalidity  of  such  bequc9t9  hm)  at- 


MA88B8                                 32  MASSES 

ready  become  established.  In  West  ▼.  Shuttieworth  been  regarded  as  valid,  and,  by  a  recent  decision  given 
(above),  which  is  the  leading  case  on  the  subject,  ui)on  euiaustive  consideration  of  the  question  by  the 
Pepys  M.  R.  stated  that  it  was  by  analogy  to  the  stat-  Irish  Court  of  Appeal,  the  law  is  settled  that  such  be- 
ute  that  the  ill€^lity  of  these  bequests  had  become  es-  quests,  even  when  the  Masses  are  to  be  said  in  private, 
tablished.  This  would  seem  to  mean  that  their  ille-  constitute  good  charitable  gifts  and  so  may  be  made  in 
gality  was  based  upon  the  general  policy  of  the  law  perpetuity  (O'Hatdon  v.  Logue,  1906, 1  Ir.  247).  But 
and  upon  principles  resulting  from  such  a  change  in  the  m  Ireland,  also,  religious  orders  of  men  are  illegal 
national  system  as  must  have  arisen  in  that  age  from  and  any  bequest  for  Masses  to  such  an  order  which  is 
the  complete  chan^^e  in  the  national  chiurch.  In  that  to  go  to  the  benefit  of  tiie  order  is  illegal  and  void 
case,  since  the  policy  applied  to  the  whole  realm  in-  (Burke  v.  Power,  1905,  1  Ir.  123).  But  such  a  be- 
eluding  Ireland,  where  Protestantism  became  the  es-  quest  was  allowed  in  one  recent  case,  and  in  cases 
tablished  churdi  and  an  even  more  vigorous  anti-  where  the  bequest  for  Masses  contains  no  indication 
Catholic  policy  was  pursued  by  the  legislature,  one  that  the  money  is  to  go  to  the  order  itself  the  Court 
would  expect  to  find  the  ille^Jity  of  bequests  for  will  aUow  the  becuest  (Bradshaw  v.  Jackman,  1887, 
Masses  established  in  Ireland  also^^ou^  the  statute  21  L.  R.  Ir.  15).  The  decisions  show  a  strong  general 
itself  did  not  apply  to  Ireland.  Thus,  m  the  case  of  tendency  to  seek  any  means  of  escaping  those  penal 
theAttomey-Generalv.Power,  1809(lB.dbBen.  150)  provisions  of  the  Catholic  Relief  Act,  1829,  which, 
Lord  Manners,  Irish  Lord  Chancellor,  in  giving  judg-  though  never  actively  enforced,  still  remain  on  the 
ment  with  regard  to  a  bequest  to  a  scnool  oy  a  Catho-  statute  book.  This  statutory  illegality  of  any  be- 
lie testator,  stated  that  he  would  not  act  upon  the  pre-  ouest  to  a  religious  order  of  men  to  so  to  the  benefit  of 
sumption  ^at  it  was  for  the  endowment  of  a  Catholic  tne  order  applies,  of  course,  ecjual^  to  England  and 
school,  and  that  such  a  bequest  would  by  the  law  of  to  Scotland,  where  these  provisions  against  religious 
Kngland  be  deemed  void  either  as  being  contrary  to  orders  are  also  law,  but  there  does  not  appear  to  be 
the  provisions  of  the  statute  of  Edward  Vl  or  as  being  any  report  of  any  decision  on  the  point  m  either  of 
agamst  public  poli^.    Yet  the  same  Lord  Chancellor,  these  countries. 

in  the  case  of  the  (jommissioners  of  Charitable  Dona-  In  Scotland  the  position  seems,  otherwise,  to  be  as 
tions  V.  Walsh,  1823,  7  Ir.  Eq.  32,  after  a  prolonged  follows:  though,  in  the  centuries  succeeding  the  Ref- 
argument  before  him,  held  a  bequest  for  reqmem  ormation  the  public  policy  was  distinctly  anti-Catho- 
Maisses  to  be  good.  lie  and  there  was  legislation  (like  the  anti-Popery  Act 
The  ground  of  public  policy  in  respect  of  this  ques-  passed  in  1700,  which,  amongst  otiier  provisions, 
tion  seems  no  longer  to  holdjgood.  There  is  no  longer  penalised  the  hearing  of  Mass)  directed  against  the 
any  public  policy  against  Catholicism  as  such.  As  Cktholic  religion,  yet  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
mentioned  above,  seemingly,  a  bequest  for  the  mere  Statute  which  has  given  rise  to  the  question  of  "  super- 
celebration  of  Masses  with  no  intention  for  souls  de-  stition  "  on  the  special  point  of  gifts  for  prayers  for  tiie 
parted  would  be  valid.  Moreover,  seemingly,  a  bequest  dead.  By  an  Act  passed  in  1793  Catholics  in  Scotland, 
for  the  propagation  of  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  would  who  had  made  a  aeclaration  now  no  longer  required, 
be  a  good  charitable  bequest  (Thornton  v.  Howe,  were  put  upon  the  same  footing  as  other  persons.  The 
1862,  31  Beav.  19).  Thus,  since  the  Roman  CathoUc  Catholic  Charities  Act,  1832,  applied  also  to  Scotland. 
Charities  Act  1832,  putting  Catholics  as  regards  *'  their  The  torm  **  charity ''  is  even  rather  more  widely  intor- 
.  .  .  charitable  purposes  in  Uie  same  position  as  preted  in  Scottish  law  than  in  English  law.  Thus,  in 
other  persons,  the  holding  a  bequest  for  Masses  for  the  Scotland  through  the  repeal  of  the  legislation  against 
dead  to  be  invalid  appears  necessarily  to  imply  that  Catholics  and  the  legalisation  of  bequests  to  their 
tiie  bemiest  is  not  to  a  charitable  purpose  and  thereby  charitable  purposes,  legacies  for  requiem  Masses  seem 
to  involve  the  inconsistency  that  it  is  not  a  ''charity  '  to  pass  unquestioned.  There  is  little  doubt  that,  if 
to  practise  by  the  exereise  of  a  *' charity''  the  doctrme  they  were  to  be  challenged,  the  Courts  would  uphold 
which  it  is  a  *'  charity  "  to  propagato.  Yet  this  is  so  them.  In  a  recent  case  where  there  was  a  bequ^  for 
even  though,  by  the  bequest  being  for  Masses  to  be  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  perpetuity  (there  was  no 
said  for  the  departed  generally,  there  is  evidence  of  an  mention  of  any  intention  for  the  deam  the  validity  of 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  testator  of  promoting  the  bequest  was  not  in  any  way  called  in  question 
more  than  his  own  individual  welfare.  Thus,  appai^  (Marquess  of  Bute's  Trustees  v.  Marquess  of  Bute, 
ently,  the  real  basis  of  the  legal  view  of  these  bequests  1904,  7  F.  42).  The  law  as  to  superstitious  uses  pre- 
is  that  the  law  may  not  recogniase  the  purpose  of  a  vailing  in  England  is  not  taken  to  be  imported  into  tiie 
spiritual  benefit  to  one's  fellow-creatures  in  an  after  laws  of  British  colonies  or  possessions  (Yeap  v.  Ong, 
existence  intended  by  a  person  believing  in  the  possi-  1875,  L.  R.  6  C.  P.  396).  In  Australia,  though  by  an 
bility  of  such  a  benefit.  But  such  an  attitude,  apart  Act  of  the  British  Parliament  passed  in  1828,  all  the 
from  the  inconsistency  mentioned,  seems  to  be  op-  laws  and  statutes  in  foree  in  England  at  that  date  were, 
posed  to  the  present  policy  of  the  law  with  regard  to  as  far  as  possible,  to  be  appliedr  to  the  administration 
religious  opimons,  especially  when  the  act  of  wor^p  of  justice  m  the  ClJourts  of  the  new  Australasian  Colonies, 
directed  by  the  bequest,  when  viewed  apart  from  the  the  law  as  to  superstitious  uses  has  been  held  by  the 
particular  believed  effect,  is  approved  by  the  law  as  Supreme  Court  of  Victoria  not  to  apply  there  (In 
a  charity.  Doubt  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  present  ^e  Will  of  Purcell,  1895,  21,  V.  L.  R.  249).  This  de- 
law  on  the  subject  was  expressed  by  Romilly  M.  R.  in  cision  was  followed  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  South 
the  case  Re  Michels  Truste  (above),  where  he  upheld  a  Wales  in  1907  (Re  Hartnett,  7  S.  R.  463).  There  is 
beouest  for  a  Jewish  prayer  to  be  recited  on  the  testa-  little  doubt  that  the  law  which  these  cases  declare 
tor  s  anniversary  in  perpetuity,  there  being  no  evidence  would  be  followed  in  all  other  Australian  Colonies  and 
that  the  prayer  was  to  oe  recited  for  the  benefit  of  the  in  New  Zealand.  In  India  bequests  for  requiem 
testator's  soul,  and  in  the  case  re  Blundell's  Trusts,  Masses  are  valid  (Das  Merces  v.  Clones,  1864,  2  Hyde 
1861  (30  Beav.  362),  where  he  considered  himself  com-  65;  Judah  v.  Judah,  1870,  2  B.  L.  R.  433). 
pelled,  in  compliance  with  the  judgment  in  West  v.  ^  Coke  on  LiftUum  96  (b);  Kichol.  TFt«»  of  the  Kinoaand 
guttleworth  (above),  to  disallow  a  beciuest  by  a  8rJL'{S?^r'Hir?^;'i2;S^'j?lo1^ 

Catholic  testator  for  reqiuem  Masses,  Statmg  that  the  Hmruthe  Eiohthjwn  an  authentic  copy  in  the  Handa  of  an  Atior- 

law  declaring  such  bequests  to  be  invalid  had  now  be-  ♦J'y  Oondon.  1783):    Dukb  on  the  Law  of  Charitable  Uaee^ 

oome  so  established  that  only  ajudgment  of  the  House  edited  by  Bhidoman  (London.  1805).                   m^t**, 

of  Lords  could  alter  it.     It  would  be  desirable  that  the  "*  °-  wolan. 

decision  of  that  tribimal  should  be  obtained  on  this  Masses,  Devisbb  and  Bequests  fob  (Unttbd 

question.  States). — ^Prior  to  the  period  of  the  Reformation  in 

In  Ireland  bequests  for  requiem  Masses  have  long  England  in  1532,  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of 


33 


(he  donon  of  proper^  given  for  that  purpose  were 
upheld  in  Ensland,  but  during  that  vear  a  statute  was 
Dftssed  providing  that  thereafter  all  uses  declared  of 
land,  except  leaseholds  of  twenty  years,  to  the  in- 
tent to  have  perpetual  or  the  continued  service  of 
a  priest,  or  other  like  uses,  should  be  void.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI  (1547),  another  statute  was 
pasaed  declaring  the  kmst  entitled  to  all  real  and 
certain  specified  personal  property  theretofore  di»- 
poeed  of  tor  the  perpetual  finding  of  a  priest  or  main- 
tenance of  any  anniversary  or  obit,  or  other  like  thing, 
or  any  lizht  or  lamp  at  any  church  or  chapel.  These 
statutes  did  not  make  disposition  of  personal  property 
to  such  uses  void,  and  the  statute  ot  Henry  vlll  was 
prospective  and  applied  only  to  assurances  of  land  to 
churches  and  chapels,  and  that  of  Edward  VI  was 
limited  to  dispositions  of  property,  real  and  personal, 
theretofore  inade.  But  the  English  chancellors  and 
the  English  Judges,  in  the  absence  of  any  express  stat- 
ute, determmed  all  dispositions  of  property,  whether 
real  or  personal,  given  or  devised  for  uses  specified  in 
the  two  statutes,  to  be  absolutely  void  as  contrary  to 
public  policy,  being  for  superstitiotis  uses.  The  de» 
cision  covered  l^acies  such  as  to  priests  to  pray  for 
the  soul  of  the  oonor  or  for  the  bringing  up  of  poor 
children  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

It  has  been  expressly  decided  that  these  statutes 
and  the  doctrine  of  superstitious  uses  as  enunciated  by 
the  English  judges  do  not  apply  in  the  United  States, 
although  the  nrst  colonies  from  which  the  States 
grew  were  established  subsequentlv  to  the  dates  of 
the  adoption  of  the  statutes  referred  to,  and  this,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  states 
statutes  were  passed  adopting  the  common  law  and 
statutes  of  England  so  far  as  the  same  mieht  be  ap- 
plicable to  the  altered  condition  of  the  setUers  in  the 
colonies.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  it  is  a  maxim 
of  law  in  the  United  States  that  a  man  TOAy  do  what 
he  will  with  his  own,  so  long  as  he  does  not  violate  the 
law  by  so  doing  or  devote  ms  property  to  an  immoral 
purpose;  consequently,  since  there  is  a  legal  equality 
of  sects  and  all  are  thus  in  the  eyes  of  the  law  equally 
orthodox,  to  discriminate  between  what  is  a  pious  and 
what  a  superstitious  use  would  be  to  infringe  upon  the 
constitutional  guarantee  of  perfect  freedom  ana  equal- 
ity of  all  religions  (see  opinion  of  Tuley,  J.,  in  the  case 
oi  Kehoe  v.  Kehoe,  reported  as  a  note  to  Gilman  v. 
McArdle,  12  Abb.  N.  C,  427  New  York).  In  none  of 
the  states  of  the  Union,  therefore,  are  bequests  or  de- 
vises of  property  for  Masses  for  the  dead  invalid  on  the 
ground  of  being  superstitious,  but  there  is  a  diversity 
among  the  decisions  as  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  such  bequests  or  devises  will  be  sustained. 

In  New  York  the  law  of  England  on  the  subject  of 
charitable  and  religious  trusts  has  been  completely 
abrogated  by  statute,  it  being  intended  that  there 
should  be  no  system  of  public  charities  in  that  state 
except  through  the  medium  of  corporate  bodies.  The 
policy  has  been  to  enact  from  time  to  time  general  and 
special  laws  specifying  and  sanctioning  the  particular 
ODJect  to  be  promoted,  restricting  the  amoimt  of 
property  to  be  enjoyed,  carefully  keeping  the  subject 
unoer  legislative  control,  and  alwa3rs  providing  a  com- 
petent and  ascertained  donee  to  take  and  use  the 
charitable  gifts  (Levy  v.  Levy,  33  N.  Y.,  97;  Holland 
V.  Alcock,  108  N.  Y.,  312).  In  accordance  with  this 
policy  a  general  act  was  passed  regulating  the  incor- 
poration of  religious  bodies,  anof  empowering  the 
trustees  to  take  into  their  possession  property, 
whether  the  same  has  been  given,  granted  or  devised 
directly  to  a  church,  congregation  or  society,  or  to  any 
other  person  for  their  use  (Laws  of  1813,  c.  60,  s.  4,  III ; 
CumminflS  and  Gilbert, "  Gen.  Laws  and  other  Statutes 
of  N.  Y/',  p.  3401).  By  the  provisions  of  other 
statutes  Roman  Cauiolic  churches  come  imder  this 
act  (Laws  of  1862,  c.  45;  Cummings  and  Gilbert,  loc. 
cit.,  p.  3425).    Therefore  a  bequest  of  real  property 


for  Masses  will  be  upheld  if  it  comply  with  the  stato* 
tory  requirements,  which  are  (1)  that  Uie  gift  be  to 
a  corporation  duly  authorised  by  its  charter  or  b^ 
statute  to  teke  gifts  for  such  purpose  and  not  to  a  pri- 
vate person ;  (2)  that  the  will  oy  which  the  gift  is  made 
shall  nave  been  properlv  executed  at  least  two  months 
before  the  testators  oeath  (Cummings  and  Gilbert, 
loc.  dt.,  p.  4470;  Laws  of  1848,  c.  319;  Laws  of  1860, 
c.  360:  Lefevre  v.  Lefevre,  59  N.  Y.,  434),  and  (3)  that 
if  the  testetor  have  a  wife,  child,  or  parent,  the  be- 
quest shall  not  exceed  one-half  of  his  proper^  after 
his  debts  are  paid  (ibid.,  see  Ha2enmeyer*8  Will,  12 
Abb.  N.  C,  432).  Every  trust  of  personal  property, 
which  is  not  contrary  to  public  policy  and  is  not  m 
conflict  with  the  statute  regulating  the  accumulation 
of  interest  and  protecting  Sie  suspension  of  absolute 
ownership  in  property  of  that  character,  is  valid  when 
the  trustee  is  competent  to  take  and  a  trust  is  for  a 
lawful  purpose  well  defined  so  as  to  be  capable  of  beinc 
specifically  executed  by  the  court  (Holmes  v.  Meac^ 
52  N.  Y.,  332).  "If  then  a  Catholic  desire  to  make 
provision  by  will  for  saving  of  Masses  for  his  soul, 
there  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  but  that  every  court 
in  the  State  [New  York],  if  not  in  the  Union,  would  up- 
hold the  bequest  if  the  mode  of  making  it  were  affree- 
abletothelaw"  (see  careful  article  written  in  1886  by  F. 
A.  McCloskey  in  ''Albany  Law  Journal",  XXXII,  367). 

For  similar  reasons  in  Wisconsin,  where  all  trusts 
are  abolished  by  stetute  except  certain  specified 
truste  with  a  definite  beneficiarv,  a  gift  for  Masses,  to 
be  good,  must  not  be  so  wordeid  as  to  constitute  a 
trust.  Thus  a  bequest  in  the  following  lanffuitfe:  "I 
do  give  and  bequeath  unto  the  Roman  OLthoBc  Bishop 
of  uie  Diocese  of  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin,  the  sum  of 
$4150,  the  said  sum  to  be  used  and  applied  as  follows: 
For  Masses  for  the  repose  of  my  soul,  two  thousand 
dollars,  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  my  de- 
ceased wife,  ete. ,  ete."  The  court  held  that  a  trust  waa 
created  by  this  language,  and  savs:  ''It  is  evident 
that  such  a  trust  is  not  capable  of  execution,  and  no 
court  would  teke  cognisance  of  any  question  in  respect 
to  it  for  want  of  a  competent  pwrty  to  raise  and  liti« 
snte  any  question  of  abuse  or  perversion  of  the  trust." 
But  it  adds:  "  We  know  of  no  le^al  reason  why  any 
person  of  the  Catholic  faith,  believmg  in  the  efficacy  of 
Masses,  may  not  make  a  direct  gift  or  bequest  to  any 
bishop  or  priest  of  any  sum  out  of  his  property  or 
estate  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  his  soul  or  the  s#ul8 
of  others,  as  he  may  choose.  Such  eifte  or  bequeste, 
when  made  in  clear,  direct,  and  legal  form,  should  be 
upheld;  and  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  im- 
peachable or  inviuid  under  the  rule  that  prevailed  in 
England  by  which  they  were  held  void  as  gifte  to 
superstitious  uses"  (72  N.  W.  Rep.,  631). 

The  same  view  was  taken  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Alabama,  where  a  bequest  to  a  church  to  be  used  in 
solenm  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  the  testa- 
tor was  held  invalid  inasmuch  as  it  did  not  respond  to 
any  one  of  the  following  teste:  (1)  that  it  was  a  direct 
bequest  to  the  church  for  ite  general  uses;  (2)  that  it 
created  a  chariteble  use;  or  (3)  that  it  created  a  valid 
private  trust.  It  was  not  a  charity  inasmuch  as  it 
was  "  for  the  benefit  alone  of  his  own  soul,  and  cannot 
be  upheld  as  a  public  charitv  without  offending  every 
principle  of  law  oy  which  such  charities  are  supported  , 
and  it  was  not  valid  as  a  private  trust  for  want  of  a 
living  benefici^y  to  support  it  (Festoraui  v.  St. 
Joseph's  R.  C.  Church  of  Mobile,  25  Law.  Rep.  Atir^ 
360). 

In  lUiiiois  an  opposite  conclusion  is  reached,  it  being 
held  distinctly  that  a  devise  for  Masses  for  the  repose 
of  the  soul  of  the  testetor,  or  for  the  repose  of  the  souls 
of  other  named  persons,  is  valid  as  a  charitable  use, 
and  the  devise  for  such  purpose  will  not  be  allowed  to 
fail  for  want  of  a  competent  trustee,  but  the  court  will 
appoint  a  trustee  to  take  the  gift  and  apply  it  to  the 
purposes  of  the  trust.    Such  a  be<}uest  is  distinctly 


BiASSZLIAHS                             34  1CA88ZXXON 

held  to  be  witkin  the  definition  of  charities  which  are  elements  of  such  a  trust,  as  much  as  it  would  if  the 
to  be  sustained  irrespective  of  the  indefiniteness  of  the  object  were  the  erection  of  a  monument  or  the  doing 
beneficiaries,  or  of  tne  lack  of  trustees,  or  the  fact  that  of  any  other  act  intended  alone  to  perpetuate  the 
the  trustees  appointed  are  not  competent  to  take ;  and  memory  or  name  of  the  testator.    But  even  if  there  is 
it  is  not  derived  from  the  Statute  of  Charitable  Uses  a  techmcsd  departure  because  of  no  living  beneficiary, 
(43  Elizabeth,  c.  4),  but  existed  prior  to  and  indepen-  still  the  bequest  is  valid.    We  have  also  said  that  it  is 
dent  of  that  statute.   The  court  quotes  with  approval  not  a  chanty,  and  we  can  discover  no  element  oi  a 
the  definition  of  a  charitv  as  given  by  Bfr.  Justice  Gray  charity  in  it.   It  seems  to  be  a  matter  entirely  personal 
of  Massachusetts:  "  A  charity  in  a  legal  sense  may  oe  to  the  testator.   In  one  or  more  csLBea  the  courts  have 
more  fuller  defined  as  a  gift,  to  be  applied  consistently  felt  the  necessity  in  order  to  sustain  such  a  bequest,  to 
with  existing  laws,  for  the  benefit  of  an  indefinite  num-  denominate  it  a  charity  because  charitable  bequests 
ber  of  persons,  either  by  bringing  their  hearts  under  have  had  the  sanction  of  the  law.  We  know  of  no  such 
the  influence  of  education  or  religion,  by  relieving  limitation  on  testamentary  acts  as  that  bequests  or 
their  bodies  from  disease,  suffering,  or  constraint,  by  devises  must  be  in  the  line  of  other  such  acts,  if  other- 
assisting  them  to  establish  themselves  for  life,  or  by  wise  lawful"  (Moran  v.  Moran,  73  N.  W.  Re|>.,  617). 
erecting  and  maintaining  public  buildings  or  works.  It  follows  then  that  there  is  no  legal  inhibition  on 
or  otherwise  lessening  the*  burthen  of  government.    It  bequests  for  Masses  in  any  of  the  United  States  either 
is  immaterial  whether  the  purpose  is  called  charitable  on  the  ground  of  public  policy  or  because  they  offend 
in  the  gift  itself,  if  it  be  so  described  as  to  show  that  it  against  any  inherent  principle  of  right.   But  care  must 
is  charitable  in  its  nature "  (Jackson  v.  Phillips,  14  be  taken  in  drafting  the  will  to  observe  the  statutes, 
Allen,  539).    The  court  proceeds  to  show  that  the  where  any  exist,  in  relation  to  devises  or  beauests  in 
Mass  is  intended  to  be  a  repetition  of  the  sacrifice  of  trust  for  any  puxpose  as  well  as  the  current  of  decisions 
the  Cross,  and  b  the  chief  and  central  act  of  worship  where  cases  have  arisen.  The  language  should  be  dear 
in  the  Catholic  Church;  that  it  is  public.  It  points  out  and  drawn  in  accordance  with  legal  rules.    It  should 
the  Catholic  belief  on  the  subject  of  Purgatory,  and  not  be  left  to  the  chances  of  interpretation, 
holds  that  the  adding  of  a  particular  remembrance  in  See  the  authorittoB  quoted  ^ve. 
the  Mass  does  not  change  the  character  of  the  religious  Walter  Gborqb  Smith. 
service  and  render  it  a  mere  private  benefit;  and  fur-  Masaifians.    See  Semipblaqians. 
ther,  that  the  bequest  is  an  aid  to  the  support  of  the 
clergy  (Hoeffer  v.  Clogan,  49  N.  E.  Rep.,  527).  MassiUon,    Jean-Baptistb,    celebrated    French 

In  Pennsvlvania  bequests  and  devises  for  BCasses  preacher  and  bishop;  b.  24  June,  1663;  d.  28  Septem* 

are  distinctly  held  to  be  gifts  for  religious  uses,  the  ber,  1742.    The  son  of  Fran9oi8  Massillon,  a  notarv  of 

Supreme  Court  of  that  state  having  expressea  the  Hy^res  in  Provence,  he  began  his  studies  in  the  college 

same  view  of  the  law  subsequently  adopted  in  Illinois,  of  that  town  and  completed  them  in  the  college  of 

The  court  uses  the  following  language:  '' According  to  Marseilles,  both  imder  the  Oratorians.    He  entered 

the  Roman  Catholic  svstem  of  faith  there  exists  an  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 

intermediate  state  of  the  soul,  after  death  and  before  After  his  novitiate  and  theological  studies,  he  was  sent 

final  judgment,  during  which  guilt  incurred  during  life  as  professor  to  the  colleges  of  the  congregation  at 

and  unatoned  for  must  be  expiated;  and  the  tempo-  P^enas,  Marseilles,  Montbrison,  and,  lastly,  Vienne, 

rary  punishments  to  which  the  souls  of  the  penitent  where  he  taught  philosophy  and  theology  for  six  years 

are  tnus  subjected  may  be  mitigated  or  arrested  (1689-05). 

through  the  efficacy  of  the  Mass  as  a  propitiatory  sac-  Ordained  priest  in  1691,  he  commenced  preaching 
rifice.  Hence  the  practice  of  offering  Masses  for  the  in  the  chapel  of  the  Oratoiy  at  Vienne  and  in  the  vicin- 
d^arted.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that,  in  obeying  the  ity  of  that  city.  Upon  tJtte  death  of  Villeroy,  Arch- 
injunction  of  the  testator,  intercession  would  be  spe-  bishop  of  Lyons  (1693),  he  was  called  upon  to  deliver 
ciall^invokedinbehalf  of  the  testator  alone.  Theser-  the  funeral  oration,  and  six  months  later  that  of  M. 
vice  is  just  the  same  in  kind  whether  it  be  desimed  to  de  Villars,  Archbishop  of  Vienne.  Joining  the  Lyons 
prdbiote  the  spiritual  welfare  of  one  or  many.  Prayer  Oratory  in  1695,  and  summoned  to  Paris  in  the  foUow- 
tor  the  conversion  of  a  single  impenitent  is  as  purely  ing  year,  to  be  director  of  the  Seminary  of  Saint-Ma- 
a  religious  act  as  a  petition  for  the  salvation  ot  thou-  gloire,  he  was  thenceforward  able  to  devote  himself  ex- 
sands.  The  services  intended  to  be  performed  in  clusively  to  preaching.  As  director  of  this  seminary 
carrying  out  the  trust  created  by  the  testator's  will,  he  delivered  those  lectures  (conf fences)  to  young 
as  well  as  the  objects  designed  to  be  attained,  are  all  clerics  which  are  still  highlv  esteemed.  But  a  year 
essentially  religious  in  their  character"  (Rnymer's  later  he  was  removed  from  his  position  at  Saint-Ma- 
Appeal,  93  Pa.,  142).  In  Pennsylvania  care  must  be  gloire  for  having  occupied  himself  too  exclusively  with 
taken  to  observe  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  26  April,  preaching.  Having  preached  the  Lent  at  Montpellier 
1855^  P.  L.,  332,  whicn  prohibits  devises  or  legacies  for  m  1698,  he  preached  it  the  next  year  at  the  Oratory  of 
charitable  or  religious  uses,  unless  by  will  executed  at  Paris.  His  eloquence  in  this  series  of  discourses  was 
least  one  month  before  the  death  of  the  testator.  A  very  much  approved,  and,  although  he  aimed  at 
^t  to  be  expended  for  Masses,  being  a  religious  use,  preaching  in  a  style  unlike  that  of  his  predecessors, 
would  come  within  this  statute.  The  provisions  of  the  public  opinion  already  hailed  him  as  the  successor  of 
law  relating  to  attesting  witnesses,  requiring  two  cred-  bossuet  and  Bourdaloue  who  were  at  that  time  re- 
ible  and  di^terested  witnesses  wnen  any  ^t  is  made  duced  to  silence  by  age.  At  the  end  of  this  year  he 
by  will  for  religious  or  charitable  uses,  should  also  be  preached  the  Advent  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV — an 
noted.  honour  which  was  in  those  days  highlv  coveted  as  the 

In  Massachusetts  the  courts  take  the  same  view  as  consecration  of  a  preacher's  fame.    He  justified  every 

those  of  Pennsylvania,  that  gifts  for  Masses  are  to  be  hope,  and  the  Idne  wittily  declared  that,  where  he  had 

sustained  as  for  religious  uses  (Re  Schouler,  134  Mass.,  formerly  been  well  pleased  with  the  preachers,  he  was 

126).  now  very  ill  pleased  with  himself.    Massillon,  by  com- 

In  Iowa  the  Supreme  Court  has  sustained  a  bequest  mand,  once  more  appeared  in  the  chapel  of  Versailles 

"to  the  Catholic  priest  who  may  be  pastor  of  the  R.  for  the  Lent  of  1701.    Bossuet,  who,  according  to  his 

Catholic  Church  when  this  will  shall  be  executed,  three  secretary,  had  thought  Massillon  very  far  from  the 

hundred  dollars  that  Masses  may  be  said  for  me  ",  as  sublime  in  1699,  this  time  declared  himself  very  well 

^^ing  valid,  though  it  contains  no  element  of  a  chari-  satisfied,  as  was  the  kizig.    Massillon  was  summoned 

table  use.    The  court  says:  "We  have  said  that  this  a^ain  for  the  Lent  of  1704.    This  was  the  apogee  of 

be<iuest,  if  the  priest  should  accept  the  money,  is  a  his  eloquence  and  his  success.    The  king  assiduously 

private  trust:  and  we  think  it  possesses  the  essential  attended  his  sermons^  and  in  the  royal  presence  Maa^ 


ttASS6ftAft 


36 


MASSOftAfi 


sillon  delivered  that  discourse  "On  the  Fewness  of  the 
Elect",  which  is  considered  his  masterpiece.  Never- 
theless, whether  because  the  compromising  relations  of 
the  orator  with  certain  great  families  had  produced  a 
bad  impression  on  the  king,  or  because  Louis  ended  by 
believing  him  inclined — as  some  of  his  brethren  of  the 
Oratory  were  thought  to  be— to  Jansenism,  Massillon 
was  never  again  summoned  to  preach  at  the  Court  dur- 
ing the  life  of  Louis  XIV,  nor  was  he  even  put  forward 
for  a  bishopric.  Nevertheless  he  continued,  from 
17Q4  to  1718,  to  preach  Lent  and  Advent  discourses 
with  great  success  in  various  churches  of  Paris.  Only 
in  the  Advent  of  1715  did  he  leave  those  churches  to 
preach  before  the  Court  of  Stanislas,  King  of  Lorraine. 
In  the  interval  he  preached,  with  only  moderate 
success,  sermons  at  ceremonies  of  taking  the  habit, 

panegyrics,  and 
funeral  orations. 
Of  his  funeral  ora^ 
tions  that  on  Louis 
XIV  is  still  fa- 
mous, above  all  for 
its  opening:  "God 
alone  is  great" — 
uttered  at  the 
grave  of  a  prince 
to  whom  his  con- 
temporaries had 
yielaed  the  title  of 
"The  Great". 

After  the  death 
of  this  king  Mas- 
sillon returned  to 
favour  at  Court. 
In  1717  the  regent 
nominated  him  to 
the  Bishopric  of 
Clermont  (Au- 
vergne)  and  caused 


JSAIf-BAPTIBTS  MaBSILLON 


him  to  preach  before  the  yoimg  king,  Louis  XV,  the 
lenten  course  of  1718,  which  was  to  comprise  only  ten 
sermons.  These  have  been  published  under  the  title 
of  "Le  Petit  Car6me" — Massillon's  most  popular 
work.  Finally,  he  was  received,  a  few  months  later, 
into  the  French  Academy,  where  Fleury,  the  young 
king's  preceptor,  pronounced  his  eulogy. 

But  Massillon,  consecrated  on  21  December,  1719, 
was  in  haste  to  take  possession  of  his  see.  With  its  29 
abbeys,  224  priories,  and  758  parishes,  the  Diocese  of 
Clermont  was  one  of  the  largest  in  France.  The  new 
bishop  took  up  his  residence  there,  and  left  it  only  to 
assist,  by  order  of  the  regent,  in  the  negotiations  which 
were  to  decide  the  case  of  Cardinal  de  Noailles  (q.  v.) 
and  certain  bishops  suspected  of  Jansenism,  in  accept- 
ing the  Bull "  Unigenitus",  to  assist  at  the  coronation 
of  Louis  XV,  and  to  preach  the  funeral  sermon  of  the 
Duchess  of  Orleans,  the  regent's  mother. 

He  made  it  his  business  to  visit  one  part  of  his  dio- 
cese each  year,  and  at  his  death  he  haa  been  through 
the  whole  diocese  nearly  three  times,  even  to  the  poor- 
est and  remotest  parishes.  He  set  himself  to  re-^tab- 
l^h  or  maintain  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  good 
morals  among  his  clergy.  From  the  ^ear  1723  on,  he 
annually  assembled  a  synod  of  the  priests;  he  did  this 
once  more  in  1742,  a  few  days  before  his  death.  In 
these  synods  and  in  the  retreats  which  followed  them 
he  delivered  the  synodal  discourses  and  conf&encea 
which  have  been  so  much,  and  so  justly,  admired.  If 
he  at  times  displayed  energy  in  reforming  abuses,  he 
was  generally  tender  and  fatherly  towards  his  clergy; 
he  was  willing  t-o  listen  to  them;  he  promoted  their 
education,  by  attaching  benefices  to  his  seminaries, 
and  assured  them  a  peaceful  old  age  by  building  a 
house  of  retirement  for  them.  He  defended  his  clergy 
aeainst  the  king's  ministers,  who  wished  to  increase 
their  fiscal  burdens,  and  he  never  ceased  to  guard  them 
against  the  errors  and  subterfuges  of  the  Jansenists, 


who,  indeed,  assailed  him  sharply  in  their  journal  "Let 
Nouvelles  Eccl^siastiques". 

Thoroughly  devoted  to  all  his  diocesan  flock,  he 
busied  himself  in  improving  their  condition.  This  is 
apparent  in  his  correspondence  with  the  king's  intend- 
ants  and  ministers,  in  which  he  does  his  utmost  to  alle- 
viate the  lot  of  the  Auvergne  peasantry  whenever 
there  is  a  disposition  to  increase  tneir  taxation,  or  the 
scourge  of  a  bad  season  afflicts  their  crops.  Tne  poor 
were  always  dear  to  him:  not  only  dia  he  pleaa  for 
them  in  his  sermons,  but  he  assisted  them  out  of  his 
bounty,  and  at  his  death  he  instituted  the  hospital  of 
Clermont  for  his  universal  heirs,  the  poor.  His  death 
was  lamented,  as  his  life  had  been  blessed  and  admired 
by  his  contemporaries.  Posterity  has  numbered  him 
with  Bossu^t,  F^nelon,  F16chier,  and  Mascaron,  among 
the  greatest  French  bishops  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
As  an  orator,  no  one  was  more  appreciated  by  the 
eighteenth  century,  which  placed  him  easily — at  least 
as  to  preaching  properly  so  called — above  Bossuet  and 
Bourdaloue.  Our  age  places  him  rather  lower.  Mas- 
sillon has  neither  the  sublimity  of  Bossuet  nor  the 
logic  of  Bourdaloue:  with  him  the  sermon  neglects 
dogma  for  morality,  and  morality  loses  its  authority, 
and  sometimes  its  security,  in  the  eyes  of  Christians. 
For  at  times  he  is  so  severe  as  to  render  himself  suspect 
of  Jansenism,  and  again  he  is  so  lax  as  to  be  accused  of 
complaisancy  for  uie  sensibilities  and  the  philoso- 
phism  of  his  time.  His  chief  merit  was  to  have  ex- 
celled in  depicting  the  passions,  to  have  spoken  to  the 
heart  in  a  language  it  always  understood,  to  have 
made  the  great,  and  princes,  imderstand  the  loftiest 
teachings  of  the  Gospel,  and  to  have  made  his  own  life 
and  his  work  as  a  bishop  conform  to  those  teachings. 
During  Massillon 's  lifetime  onlv  the  funeral  oration  on 
the  Pnnce  de  Conti  was  publisned  (1709) ;  he  even  dis- 
avowed a  collection  of  sermons  which  appeared  under 
his  name  at  Ti^voux  (1705,  1706,  1714).  The  first 
authentic  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  1745,  pub- 
lished by  his  nephew.  Father  Joseph  Massillon,  of  the 
Oratory;  it  has  been  frequently  reprinted.  But  the 
best  edition  was  that  of  Blampignon,  Bar-le^Duc, 
1865-68,  and  Paris,  1886,  in  four  vols.  It  com- 
prises ten  sermons  for  Advent,  forty-one  for  Lent, 
eight  on  the  mysteries,  four  on  virtues,  ten  panegyrics, 
six  funeral  orations,  sixteen  ecclesiastical  conferences, 
twenty  synodal  discourses,  twenty-six  charges,  para- 
phrases on  thirty  psalms,  some  pensiea  chmsies,  and 

some  fifty  miscellaneous  letters  or  notes. 

d'Albmbert,  Eloffe  de  MaanUon  in  Hitioin  dea  membrea 
de  VAcadhnieJran^Ue  (Paris,  1787),  I;  V;  Baylb,  Maaeil' 
Ion  (Paris,  1867);  Blampignon,  MaasUlon  d'apr^a  dea  documetUa 
inidUa  (Paris.  1879);  L'ijnacopat  de  MaaaiUon  (Paris,  1884); 
Attaib,  Etude  aur  MaaaiUon  (Toulouse,  1882);  Cohkndt, 
Ccnreapondance  Mandementa  de  MaaaiUon  (Clermont,  1883); 
Pauthb,  MaaaiUon  (Paris,  1908).        AntOINE  D^GERT. 

Massorah,  the  textual  tradition  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  an  official  registration  of  its  words,  consonants, 
vowels  and  accents.     It  is  doubtful  whether  the 

word  should  be  pointed ri'lDD  (from  1D6(,  "to  bind") 
orn'ibp  (from  the  NewHebrew  verb,  IDD'*  to  hand 
down").  The  former  pointing  is  seen  in  Ezech.  xx, 
37;  the  latter  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  Mishna, 
the  word's  primary  meaning  is  'tradition".  Our 
chief  witness  to  Massorah  is  the  actual  text  of  MSS.  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible.  Other  witnesses  are  several  collec- 
tions of  Massorah  and  the  numerous  marginal  notes 
scattered  over  Hebrew  MSS.  The  upper  and  lower 
margins  and  the  end  of  the  MS.  contain  the  Greater 
Massorah,  such  as  lists  of  words;  the  side  mareins  con- 
tain the  Lesser  Massorah,  such  as  variants.  The  best 
collection  of  Massorah  is  that  of  Ginsburg,  "The  Masr 
Borah  compiled  from  MSS.  alphabetically  and  lexicallV 
arranged''  (3  vols.,  London,  1880-85).  This  articfti 
will  treat  (I)  the  history  and  (II)  the  critical  value  of 
Massorah.  For  tbe  number  and  worth  of  Massoretao 
MSS.,  see  MSS.  of  the  Bible. 


MASSO&AB 


36 


MASMftAfi 


I.  HxaroRT  of  Masborah. — ^Their  sacred  books  were 
to  the  Jews  an  inspired  code  and  record,  a  God-in- 
tended means  to  conserve  the  political  and  religious 
unity  and  fidelity  of  the  nation.  It  was  imperative 
upon  them  to  keep  those  books  intact.  So  far  back  as 
the  first  century  b.  c,  copyists  and  revisers  were 
trained  and  employed  to  fix  the  Hebrew  text.    All 

had  one  purpose, — to  copy  n'IDOn  *D  hv*  *•  c-  accord- 
ing to  the  face-value  of  the  Biassorah.  To  repro- 
duce their  exemplar  perfectly,  to  hand  down  the 
Massorah, — only  this  and  nothing  more  was  purposed 
by  the  official  copyist  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Every- 
thing new  was  shunned.  There  is  evidence  that  false 
pronunciations  were  fixed  by  Massorah  centuries  b^ 
fore  the  invention  of  points  such  as  are  seen  in  our 
present  Massoretic  text.  At  times  such  earlv  transla- 
tions as  those  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  the  LXX  and 
the  Peshitto  give  evidence  of  precisely  the  same  er- 
roneous pronimciation  as  is  found  in  the  pointed  He- 
brew text  of  to-day. 

(1)  The  C(m8onantal  Text. — Hebrew  had  no  vowels 
in  its  alphabet.  Vowel  sounds  were  for  the  most  part 
handed  down  by  tradition.  Certain  consonants,  M» 
1,  ^  and  sometimes  n,  were  used  to  express  some  long 
vowels;  these  consonants  were  called  AfcUree  lecUonis, 
because  they  determined  the  pronimciation.  The  ef- 
forts of  copyists  would  seem  to  have  become  more  and 
more  minute  and  detailed  in  the  perpetuation  of  the 
consonantal  text.  These  copyists  {ypa/AtuLrtU)  were 
at  first  called  Sopherim  (from  "ifiDi  "to  count"),  be- 
cause, as  the  Talmud  says, ''  they  counted  all  the  let- 
ters in  the  Torah''  (Kiddushin,  30a).  It  was  not  till 
later  on  that  the  name  Massoretes  was  ^ven  to  the 
preservers  of  Massorah.  In  the  Talmudic  period  (c. 
A.  D.  300-500),  the  rules  for  perpetuating  Massorah 
were  extremely  detailed.  Only  skins  of  clean  animals 
must  be  used  for  parchment  rolls  and  fastenings 
thereof.  Each  column  must  be  of  equal  length,  not 
more  than  sixty  nor  less  than  forty-eight  lines.  Each 
line  must  contain  thirty  letters,  written  with  black  ink 
of  a  prescribed  make-up  and  in  the  square  letters 
which  were  the  ancestors  of  our  present  Hebrew  text- 
letters.  The  copyist  must  have  before  him  an  authen- 
tic copy  of  the  text;  and  must  not  write  from  memory 
a  single  letter,  not  even  a  yod, — every  letter  must  he 
copied  from  the  exemplar,  letter  for  letter.  The  in- 
terval between  consonants  should  be  the  breadth  of  a 
hair;  between  words,  the  breadth  of  a  narrow  conson- 
ant; between  sections,  the  breadth  of  nine  consonants; 
between  books,  the  breadth  of  three  lines. 

Such  nimierous  and  minute  rules,  though  scrupu- 
lously observed,  were  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  zeal  to 
perpetuate  the  consonantal  text  fixed  and  unchanged. 
Letters  were  omitted  which  had  surreptitiously  crept 
in:  variants  and  conjectural  readings  were  indicated  m 
side-mai^ins, — words,  "read  but  not  written"  (Qerg), 
"written  but  not  reaa"  {Keihihh),  " read  one  way  but 
written  another  " .  These  marginal  critical  notes  went 
on  increasing  with  time.  Still  more  was  done  to  fix 
the  consonantal  text.  The  words  and  letters  of  each 
book  and  of  every  section  of  the  twenty-four  books  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  were  coimted.  The  middle  words 
and  middle  letters  of  books  and  sections  were  noted. 
In  the  Talmud,  we  see  how  one  rabbi  was  wont  to 
pester  the  other  with  such  trivial  textual  questions  as 
the  juxtaposition  of  certain  letters  in  this  or  that  sec- 
tion, the  half-section  in  which  this  consonant  or  that 
was,  etc.  The  rabbis  counted  the  number  of  times 
certain  words  and  phrases  occurred  in  the  several 
books  and  in  the  whole  Bible;  and  searehed  for  mystic 
meanings  in  that  number  of  times.  On  the  top  and 
bottom  mazvins  of  MSS.,  they  grouped  various  pecu- 
liarities of  the  text  and  drew  up  alphabetical  lists  of 
words  which  occurred  equally  often, — for  instance,  of 
those  which  appeared  once  with  and  once  without 
10810.  In  Cod.  Babylon.  Petropolitanus  (a.  d.  916),  we 
have  many  critical  maiiginal  notes  of  such  and  of  other 


peculiarities,  v.  g.  a  list  of  fourteen  words  written  witli 
final  He  which  are  to  be  read  with  YFat0,  and  of  eight 
words  written  with  final  Waw,  which  are  to  be  read 
with  He.  Such  were  some  of  the  painstaking  means 
employed  to  preserve  the  consonantal  text  of  Uie  Mas- 
sorah. 

(2)  The  Points. — ^Rolls  that  were  destined  for  use  in 
the  synagogue  were  always  unpointed.  Rolls  that 
were  for  other  use  came  in  time  to  receive  vowel- 

e>ints,  and  accents;  these  latter  indicated  the  interre- 
tion  of  words  and  modulation  of  the  voice  in  public 
cantillation.  One  scribe  wrote  the  consonantal  text; 
another  put  in  the  vowel-points  and  accents  of  Mas- 
sorah. The  history  of  the  vocalisation  of  the  text  is 
utterly  unknown  to  us.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
dogmatic  interpretation  clearly  led  to  certain  pimctu- 
ations;  but  it  is  likelier  that  the  pronunciation  was 
part  of  Massorah  long  before  the  invention  of  punctu- 
ation. The  very  origin  of  this  invention  is  doubtful. 
Bleek  assigns  it  to  tne  eighth  century  (cf.  "Introd. 
to  O.  T."  I,  109,  London,  1894).  Points  were  cer- 
tainly imused  in  St.  Jerome's  time;  he  had  no  knowl- 
edge whatsoever  of  them.  The  punctuation  of  the 
traditional  text  was  just  as  certainly  complete  in  the 
ninth  century;  for  R.  Saadia  Gaon  h  942),  of  Fayum 
in  E^ypt,  wrote  treatises  thereon.  The  work  of  pimo- 
tuatmg  must  have  gone  on  for  years  and  been  done  by 
a  large  number  of  scholars  who  laboured  conjointly 
and  authoritatively.  Strack  (see  "Text  of  O.  T.",  in 
Hastings, "  Diet,  of  Bib.'')  says  it  is  practically  certain 
that  the  points  came  into  Massoran  by  Synac  influ- 
ence. Syrians  strove,  by  such  signs,  to  perpetuate  the 
correct  vocalisation  and  intonation  ot  their  Sacred 
text.  Their  efforts  gave  an  impulse  to  Jewish  sseal  for 
the  traditional  vocalisation  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
Bleek  ("Introd.  to  O.  T.",  I,  110.  London,  1894)  and 
others  are  equally  certain  that  Hebrew  scholars  re- 
ceived their  impulse  to  pimctuation  from  the  Moslem 
method  of  preserving  tne  Arabic  vocalization  of  the 
Koran.  That  Hebrew  scholars  were  influenced  by 
either  Syriac  or  Arabic  punctuation  is  undoubted. 
Both  forms  and  names  of  the  Massoretic  points  indi- 
cate either  S3rriac  or  Arabic  origin.  What  surprises  us 
is  the  absence  of  any  vestige  of  opposition  to  this  in- 
troduction into  Massorah  of  points  that  were  most  de- 
cidedly not  Jewish.  The  Karaite  Jews  surprise  us 
still  more,  since,  during  a  very  brief  period,  they  trans- 
literated the  Hebrew  text  in  Arabic  characters. 

At  least  two  systems  of  punctuation  are  Massoretic : 
the  Western  ana  the  Eastern.  The  Western  is  called 
Tiberian,  after  the  far  famed  school  of  Massorah  at 
Tiberias.  It  prevailed  over  the  Eastern  system  and  is 
followed  in  most  MSS.  as  well  as  in  all  printed  editions 
of  the  Massoretic  text.  By  rather  complicated  and 
ingenious  combinations  of  dots  and  dashes,  placed 
either  above  or  below  the  consonants,  the  Massoretes 
accurately  represented  ten  vowel  sounds  (long  and 
short  a,  e,  i,  o,  u)  together  with  four  half-vowels  or 
Shewas.  These  latter  corresponded  to  the  very  much 
obscured  English  sounds  of  e,  a,  and  o.  The  Tiberian 
Massoretes  sklso  introduced  a  great  many  accents  to 
indicate  the  tone-syllable  of  a  word,  the  logical  corre- 
lation of  words  and  the  voice  modulation  in  public 
reading.  The  Eastern  or  Babylonian  system  of  punc- 
tuation shows  dependence  on  the  Western  and  is  found 
in  a  few  MSS. — chiefest  of  which  is  CJod.  Babylon. 
Petropolitanus  (a.  d.  916).  It  was  thepimctuation  of 
Yemen  till  the  eighteentn  century.  Tne  vowel  signs 
are  all  above  the  consonants  and  are  formed  from  the 
Matrea  lectionis  HX^-  Disjunctive  accents  of  this  su- 
pralinear  punctiiation  have  signs  like  the  first  letter 
of  their  name;  Ti  zaqeph;  c,  ^ha.  A  third  system 
of  punctuation  has  been  found  in  two  fragments  of  the 
Bible  lately  brought  to  light  in  Egypt  and  now  in  the 
Bodleian  Library  (cf.  Kahle  in  '^Zeitschrift  f(lr  die 
Alttestam.  Wissenschaft",  1901;  Friedl&nder,  "A 
third  fljyBtem  of  symbols  for  the  Hebrew  vowels  and 


MA&SOULZE                            37  MAS8TS 

accents"  in  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review",  1895).   The  oraiaon,  od  les  erreura  des  Qui^tistes  sont  r^fut^es" 

invention  of  points  greatly  increased  the  work  of  (Paris,  1699);  "Traits  de  ramour  de  Dieu"  (Paris, 

scribes;  they  now  set  themselves  to  list  words  with  a  1703). 

view  to  perpetuating  not  only  the  consonants  but  the  Qutmr-EcaAnD,  Script.  Ord.  Pned.,  IT,  769;  Touron,  Hitt. 

vowels.     Cod.  Babyl  PetropolitanUS  (a.  D.  916),  for  dethommes  Ulus.,  V,  761-73;  Hukter.  JVoiyn^tor. 

instance,  lists  eighteen  words  beginning  with  Lamed  '^"  •''  Kennedy. 

and  either  Shewa  or  Hirea  followed  by  Shewa;  eigh-        -- .    ti      jl    r%      j-a-  xi-^     #xi- 

teen  words  beginning  withXamed  and  Paihah;  together  ^  Maflsuet,  RENfe,  Benedictine  patrolo^,  of  ^e 

with  an  al^betiSl  list  of  words  ending  with  n,  ^'^^W'"''  *"»  ^•-  JJ^^J'   ^'  ^\^'^^''  ^^\^\  ^' 

which  occur  only  once                                                  '  Ouen  de  Mancelles  in  the  diocese  of  Evreux;  d.  11  Jan., 

II.  CRmcAi.  VALui  OF  MA880RAH.-During  the  ^J/^  **  ^\  Germain  des  Pr6s  in  Paris.     He  made  his 

seventeenth  century,  many  Protestant  theologians,  K>>mn  profe^ion  in  religion  m  1682  at  Notre  Dam 

such  as  the  Buxtorfs  defended  the  Massoretic  text  a^  Lne,  and  studied  at  Bonnenouvelle  m  Orleans,  where 

infallible;  and  considered  that  Esdras  together  with  he  showed  more  ^nordmary  ability^ 

the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  had,  u^der  the  in-  m«  philosophy  m  the  Abbey  of  Bee  and  the^^^ 

spiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  not  only  determined  the  Stephen  s,  m  Caen,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the 

Hebrew  canon  but  fiied  fore  ver  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  J?^^."/*^.  ^^^  obtained  the  dM;rees  of  bachelor  and 

Bible,  its  vowel  points  and  accents,  its  division  mto  ^ce^tiate  in  law.    After  this  he  taught  a  year  at 

verses  and  paraphs  and  booki.     Modem  text-  Juini^^and  three  years  at  Fecamp.     Hespent^ 

critics  value  KsS)^^,  just  as  the  Itala  and  Peshitto,  7^  1702jn  Rome  in  the  study  of  Greek.    TWoDow- 

only  as  one  witness  U>  a  text  of  the  second  century.  P«  y^,^^  "^^  ^"^^  ^  ?*•  Geraiain  des  Pr6s  Md 

The  pointed  Massoretic  text  is  witness  to  a  text  which  **?«*!*  theology  there  to  the  end  of  his  life.     His 

is  not  certainly  earUer  than  the  eighth  century.    The  P"?if 'P!iT°'*^'  "^J^l^  ^®  undertookiather  reluctwitljr, 

consonantal  text  is  afar  better  witness;  unfortunately  f-*^®    a     ^?  °  r'^A^^^^u    ®*'  ^renaus,  Pans, 

the  tradition  of  this  text  was  ahnost  absolutely  uni-  ^^^^Li    i^/?iS^*  fSjj^S  ?\u  ®®^.7"**?*?  ^  *?! 

form.    There  were  different  schools  of  Massoretes,  but  Ep^  ^*  Oxford,  1702,  but  the  editor,  John  Ernest 

their  diflferences  have  left  us  very  few  variants  of  the  Grabe,  was  less  intent  on  an  accurate  rendering  of  the 

consonantal  text  (see  Manuscripts  op  the  Bible).  JJ^*  ^^  ^".  ™*r S?  ^^°?^  '^.Y^^  ^''l,  *^.  ^^T' 

The  Massoretes  were  slaves  to  Massorah  and  handed  Massuet  ennched  his  edition  with  valuable  disserta- 

down  one  and  one  only  text.    Even  textual  peculiari-  JjP^.P^  the  heresies  impumed  bv  St.  Irenaus  and  on 

ties,  clearly  due  to  error  or  accident,  were  perpetuated  Sti5®;i7^^'  i      ^iS^i  a       i  ^^  qHS      n 

by  rabbis  who  pussled  their  brains  to  f erret  oOt  mysti-  ®f  \J?l^^  fifth  volume  of  the/'  Annales  Ord  8.  Ben. 

cal  interpretations  of  these  peculiarities.    Broken  and  ^}  Mabillon.  with  some  additions  and  a  preface  mclu- 

in  verted  letters,  consonante  that  were  too  small  or  too  «*  ^^  ??  ^^  biographies  of  MabiUon  and  Rumart.     We 

large,  dots  that  were  out  of  place— aU  such  vagaries  ?^®  ?"^'  moreover,  aletter  to  John  B.  Langlois,  S.J., 

were  slavishly  handed  down  as  if  God-intendea  and  "^  defence  of  the  Benedictine  edition  of  ^.  Augustme, 

full  of  Divine  meanine  ^^°^  °^®  letters  addressed  to  Bernard  Pea  found  in 

MoRiNU».   BxereUaiiorStm    tnUiearum  de  Heimn  Gracique  Schelhorn's   "Amoenitates   Literari»".      He   left   in 

textuM  aineeniau  libri  duo  ([Paris,  i60d);  Kuenen,  Let  Oripinet  manuscript  a  Work  entitled  '  Augustmus  Graecus  ,  in 


!•*  *£?«.  ^,'S'''1*^i^?5S**  }?l^^*  JSl^^^\  ^?*»«'5  ^^ikv^  which  he  quotes  all  the  passages  of  St.  John  Chryso*- 

ike  Oriffinal  TcxU  of  the  Oid  and  New  Teatamerde  (London,  1891) ;  4.^^  ^_  _^«^  ^ .-w-«x>  j 

BuHu  Kamm  und  Text  dee  AUen  TeetamerUe  (Leipzig.  1891);  *°Sl^?g^??\    ^  .,,  ,o«o  -r«    .,. 

Lout.  HUtoirt  criiique  du  texU  el  dee  versions  de  la  BibU  (2  ^^^h  QuarteZac^riA  1833,  452;  Tabszn,  Conffr.von8t.Maur 


(Frankfurt,  1773)^  575:  Hurter,  NomencL,  IV  (Innsbniek. 
1910),  527;  Ktrehenlexikont  s.  v.;  Bucbbbrobr,  Kirdu, 
Handlez.,  s.  v. 

Fhancis  Mershmann. 


vob..  Para.  l892-4»5);  Kenton.  Our  BibU  and  the  Ancient  MSi 
(Londoa.  1896):  Kable.  Der  Maaoretiache  Text  dee  AUen  Teata- 
menla  nach  der  Veberlieferung  der  Bahuloniaehen  Juden  (Leipxiit, 
1902) ;  GiNSBURO,  Introduction  to  the  iiaaaoretieo'entical  edition 
of  the  HArmo  BiUe  (1897). 

Walter  Drum.  Masssrs  (Messtb,  Mstzts),  Quentin,  painter,  b.  at 

Lou  vain  in  1466;  d.  at  Antwerp  in  1630  (bet.  13  July 

MuBOoUA,  Antoine,  theologian,  b.  at  Toulouse,  28  and  16  September),  and  not  in  1529,  as  his  epitaph 

Oct.,  1632;  d.  at  Rome,  23  Jan.,  17()6.     At  an  early  states  (it  dates  from  the  seventeenth  century).    The 

age  he  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  in  which  he  life  of  this  great  artist  is  all  adorned,  or  obscured,  with 

held  many  important  offices;  but  above  all  these  he  legends.    It  is  a  fact  that  he  was  the  son  of  a  smith, 

prized  studv,  teaching,  and  writmg,  for  the  love  of  There  is  nothing  to  prove,  but  it  is  not  impossible  that 

which  he  refused  a  bishopric  and  asked  to  be  reUeved  he  first  followed  his  father's  trade.   In  any  case  he  was 

of  distracting  duties.     It  was  said  that  he  knew  by  a  "bronzier"  and  medallist.     On  29  March,  1528. 

heart  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas.    He  devoted  him-  Erasmus  wrote  to  Boltens  that  Massys  had  engraved 

self  with  such  earnestness  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  a  medallion  of  him  (Effigiem  meam  fudit  aere).    This 

Hebrew  that  he  could  converse  fluently  in  both  of  was  perhaps  the  medal  dated  1519,  a  copy  of  which  is 

these  languages.     His  knowledge  of  Hebrew  enabled  at  the  Museum  of  Basle.    In  1575  Molanas  in  his  his- 

him  to  overcome  in  public  debate  two  Jewish  Rabbis,  tory  of  Lou  vain  states  that  Quentin  is  the  author  of  the 

one  at  Avignon  in  1659,  the  other  at  Florence  in  1695.  standard  of  the  baptismal  fonts  at  St-Pierre,  but  his 

The  latter  became  an  exemplary  Christian,  his  con  ver-  account  is  full  of  errors.    As  for  the  wrought  iron  dome 

sion  being  modestly  ascribed  by  Massouli^  to  prayer  over  the  well  in  the  Biarch^aux-Gants  at  Antwerp, 

more  than  to  successful  disputation.     His  published  which  popular  tradition  attributes  to  him,  the  attribu- 

works  and  some  unpublished  manuscripts  (preserved  tion  is  purely  fanciful.    Tradition  also  states  that  the 

in  the  Casanatense  librarjr  at  Rome)  may  be  divided  voung  smith,  in  love  with  a  young  woman  of  Antwerp, 

into  two  classes:  those  written  in  defence  of  the  Tho-  became  a  painter  for  her  sake.    Indeed  ^is  prettv 

mistic  doctrine  of  physical  promotion,  relating  to  fable  explains  the  poetical  character  of  Maaeys.    All 

Grod*s  action  on  free  agents,  and  those  written  against  his  workis  are  like  love  songs.    Facts  tell  us  only  that 

the  Quietists,  whom  he  strenuousW  opposed,  both  by  the  young  man,  an  orphan  since  he  was  fifteen,  was 

attacking  thor  false  teachings  and  also  by  explaining  emancipated  by  his  mother  4  April,  1491,  and  that  in 

the  true  doctrine  according  to  the  principles  of  St.  the  same  year  he  was  entered  as  a  painter  on  the  regis- 

Thomas.     His  principal  works  are:  "  Divus  Thomas  ters  of  the  Guild  of  Antwerp.    He  kept  a  studio  which 

Bui  interpres  de  divina  motione  et  libertate  creata''  four  different  pupils  entered  from  1495  to  1510. 

(Rome,  1602);  ^'OratioadexpUcandamSummantheo-  He  had  six  children  by  a  first  marriage  with  Alyt 

logicamD.  Thomae"  (Rome,  1701);"  M^ditetionsde  vanTuylt.    She  died  in  1507.    Shortly  afterwards,  in 

a.  Thomas  sur  les  trois  vies,  purgative,  illuminative  et  1508  or  1509,  he  married  Catherine  Heyns,  who  bore 

unitive"  (Toulouse,  1678);  *'Trait6  de  la  veritable  him,  according  to  some,  ten  children,  according  to 


HASSTS  3 

odiers,  seven.  He  Beema  to  h»ve  been  a  respect«d 
personage.  Ab  has  been  seen,  he  had  reUtionB  with 
ErasmuB,  whose  portrait  he  painted  in  1517  (the  orig- 
inal, or  an  ancient  copy,  is  at  Hampton  Court),  and 
with  the  latter'H  friend,  Petrus  Egidjus  (Peter  GiUis), 
magistrate  of  Antwerp,  whose  portrait  by  Hassya  is 
preserved  by  Lord  Radnor  at  Longford.  Diirer  went 
to  visit  him  immediately  on  his  return  from  his  famous 
journey  to  the  Low  Countries  in  151S.  On  29  July  of 
that  year  Quentin  had  purchased  a  house,  for  which 
he  hail  perhaps  carved  a  wooden  statue  of  his  patron 
saint.  In  1520  he  worked  together  with  2S0  other 
artiste  on  the  triumphal  arches  for  the  entry  of  Em- 

K-or  Qiarlea  V.  In  1524  on  the  death  of  Joachim 
tenicr  be  was  named  guar- 
dian of  the  dau^teiB  of  the 
deceased.  This  is  all  we 
learn  from  documents  con- 
cerning him.  He  led  a  quiet, 
well-ordered,  middle-«lass, 
happy  life,  which  scaroel]' 
tallies  with  the  legendary 
figure  of  the  little  smith  be- 
coming a  painter  through 
love. 

Nevertheless,  in  this  in- 
stance also,  the  legend  is 
right.  For  nothing  explains 
better  the  appearance  in 
the  dull  prosaic  Flemish 
School  of  the  charming 
genius  of  this  lover-poet.  It 
cannot  be  believed,  as  Uo- 
lauus  asserts,  that  he  was 
the  pupil  of  Rogier  van  der 
Weyden,  since  Rogier  died 
in  14S4,  two  years  before 
Quentin's  birth.  But  the 
masters  whom  be  mi^it 
have  encountered  at  Lou  vain 
such  as  GontB,  or  even  Dirck, 
the  best  among  them,  dis- 
tress by  a  lack  of  taste  and 
imagination  a  drj'ness  of 
ideas  and  style  which  is  th« 
very  opposite  of  Masays'a 
manner.    Add  to  this  tLat 

bis  two  earliest   known  QDDrmi  Husn 

worl^,  in  fact  the  onJy  two  j,   ^j,^  y^.;  ^^        „„ 

which  count,  the   "Lite  of 

St.  Anne"  at  Brussels  and  the  Antwerp  triptych,  Northern 
the  "Deposition  from  the  Cross",  date  respectively  sitions.  ol 
from  1509  and  1511,  that  is  from  a  period  when  the 


master  was  nearly  fifty  yeare  old.  Vp  to  that  age  we 
knownothingconccminghim.  Thc"Banker  and  His 
Wife"  (Louvre)  and  the  "Portrait  of  a  Young  Man" 
(Collection  of  Mme.  Andn^),  his  only  dated  works  be- 
sides his  masterpieces,  belong  to  ISKl  and  1514  (or 
1519).  We  lack  all  the  elements  which  would  afford 
ua  an  idea  of  his  formation.  He  seems  like  an  inex- 
plicable, miraculous  flower. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  his  fjeat  palntli^ 
have  been  almost  ruined  by  restorations,  it  will  be 
understood  that  the  question  of  Massys  contains 
insoluble  problems.  In  fact  the  triptych  of  St.  Anne 
at  Brussels  is  perhaps  the  most  gracious,  tender, 
and  sweet  of  all  the  painting  of  Uie  North.  And 
it  will  always  be  mysteriotis,  unless  the  principal 
ijtemc,  which  represents  the  family  or  the  parents 
of  Chnst,  affords  some  lirht.  It  is  the  theme,  dear 
to  Uemling,  of  "spiritual  eon veisat ions",  of  those 
Bwect  meetings  of  heavenly  pereona,  in  earthly  cos- 
tumes, in  the  serenity  of  a  Paradisal  court.  This  sub- 
ject, whwe  unity  is  wholly  interior  and  mystic,  Mem- 
Udx,  as  is  known,  had  brought  from  Germany,  where 
itbad  been  tirelessly  repeated  l^  painters,  especially 
by  bim  who  was  called  because  wuiia- the  Matter  dtr 


called  symphonic,  was  enhanced  by  a  new  harmony. 
which  was  the  feeling  of  the  circulation  of  the  same 
blood  in  all  the  assembled  persons.    It  was  the  poem 
arising  from  the  quite  Germanic  intimacy  of  the  love 
of  family.     One  is  reminded  of  Suso  or   of  T&uter. 
Theloving,  tender  genius  of  Massys  would  bestirred  to 
grave  joy  in  such  a  subject.    The  eTouisite  histor)-  of 
St.  Anne,  that  poem  of  maternity,  of  the  holiness  of  the 
desire  to  survive  in   posterity,  has  never  been   ei- 
pressed  in  a  more  penetrating,  chaste,  disquieting  art. 
Besides,  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  Hiit<«iith  cen- 
tury and  Italian  influences  were  malting  themselves 
felt   everywhere.       Hassyi 
tianslated    them    into     hia 
brilliant    architecture',    into 
tbe   splendour   of  the   tur- 
quoise which   he    imparted 
to  the  blue  summits  of  the 
mountains,  to  the  boriaons 
(tf  his  landscapes.  A  charm- 
ing luxury  minglea  with  hit 
ideas  and  disfigures    them. 
It   was   a   unique   work,   a 
unique  period;  that  of  an 
ephemeral    agreement     be- 
tween   the    genius    of    the 
North  and  that  of  the  Re- 
naissance, between  the  world 
of  sentiment   and   that  of 
beauty.      This    harmony 
which  was  at  the  foundation 
of   all    the    desires   of  the 
South,  from  DUrer  to  Rem- 
brandt and  Goethe,  was 
realised  in thesimplethou^t 
of  the  ancient   smith.     By 
force  of  candour,  simplicity, 
and  love  he  found  the  secret 
which  others  sought  in  vain. 
With   still   greater    passion 
the  same  qualities  are  found 
in   the    Antwerp    "Deposi- 
tion". The  subject  is  treated, 
not  in  the  Italian  manner, 
as  in  the  Florentine  or  Um- 
j,  brian   "Pietas",  but   with 

...•l^I^n g^  the  familiar  and  tragic  senti- 

ment which  touches  the 
aces.  It  is  one  of  the  "Tombs"  compo- 
whicb  the  most  famous  are  those  of  Samt 
Mihiel  and  Solesmes.  The  body  of  Christ  is  one  of 
the  most  exhausted,  the  moat  "dead",  the  roost 
moving  that  painting  has  ever  created.  All  is  full  of 
tendernees  and  desolation. 

Massys  has  the  genius  of  tears.  He  loves  to  point 
tears  in  large  pearls  on  the  eyes,  on  the  red  cheeks  of 
his  holy  women,  as  in  his  wonderful  "Magdalen"  of 
Berlin  or  his"Piet4"  of  Munich.  But  be  had  at  the 
same  time  the  keenest  sense  of  grace.  His  Hero- 
diades,  his  Salomes  (Antwerp  triptj-ch)  are  the  most 
bewitching  figures  of  all  the  art  of  his  time.  And  this 
excitable  nervousness  mode  him  particularly  sensitive 
to  the  ridiculous  side  of  things.  He  had  a  sense  of  the 
grotesque,  of  caricature,  of  the  droll  and  the  hideous, 
which  IS  displayed  in  his  figures  of  old  men,  of  execu- 
tioneis.  And  this  made  him  a  wonderful  genre 
painter.  His  "Banker"  and  his  "Money  Chanfers" 
maugurat^  in  the  Flemish  School  the  rich  traction 
of  the  painting  of  manners.  He  had  a  pupil  in  *.WMi 
style,  Morinus,  many  of  whose  pictures  still  pam  under 
his  name. 

Briefly,  Hassvs  was  the  last  of  the  great  FlemiA 
artists  prior  to  tlie  Italian  invauoD.  He  was  the  most 
sensitive,  the  most  nervous,  the  most  poetioil,  the 
most  comprehenaive  of  all,  and  in  him  is  aiaeeraod  tba 


MA8TEB 


39 


BCASTEB 


tumultuous  strain  which  was  to  appear  100  years 
lAter  in  the  innumerable  works  of  Ruoens. 

Vam  Mamdbb,  Le  lAvre  dea  PeintreM,  ed.  Hthans  (Paris, 
1884);  Waxqxn.  Trmntru  of  AH  in  England  (London,  1S54); 
Htmanb,  Quenttn  Metay  in  GazeUe  det  Beaux-Arts  (1888); 
CoHSN,  Studien  mu  Quentin  Metgys  (Bonn,  1894);  de  Bob- 
scHSRS»  Q%tentm  MtUyB  (Bniflsebi,  1907);  Wursbach,  Niedef 
iOndiadkm  KQndUrlaMxm  (Leipaig,  190(»-10). 

Louis  Gillet. 
Master  of  Arts.    See  Abts,  Masteb  of. 

Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace.— This  office  (which 
has  always  been  entrusted  to  a  Friar  Preacher)  may 
briefly  be  described  as  being  that  of  the  pope's  theo- 
logian. St.  Dominic,  appointed  in  1218,  was  the  first 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (Magister  Sacri  PalaUi) . 
Amonff  the  eightv-four  Dominicans  who  have  suc- 
ceeded him,  eighteen  were  subsequently  created 
cardmals,  twenty-four  were  made  archbishops  or 
Inshops  (including  some  of  the  cardinals),  and  six 
were  ^ected  generals  of  the  order.  Several  are 
famous  for  their  works  on  theology,  etc.,  but  only 
Durandus,  Torquemada,  Prierias,  Mamachi,  and  Orsi 
can  be  mentioned  here.  As  regards  nationality:  the 
majority  have  been  Italians;  of  the  remainaer  ten 
have  been  Spaniards  and  ten  Frenchmen,  one  has 
been  a  German  and  one  an  Englishman  (i.  e.  William 
de  Boderisham,  or  Bonderish,  1263-1270?).  It  has 
sometimes  been  asserted  that  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin 
was  a  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace.  This  is  due  to  a 
misconception.  He  was  Lector  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
The  offices  were  not  identical.  (See  Bullarium  O.  P., 
Ill,  18.)  Though  he  and  two  other  contemporary 
Dominicans,  namely  his  teacher  Bl.  Albert  the  Great 
and  his  fellow  pupu  Bl.  Ambrose  Sansedonico  (about 
both  of  whom  the  same  assertion  has  been  made)  held 
successively  the  office  of  Lecturer  on  Scripture  or  on 
Theology  in  the  papal  palace  school,  not  one  of  them 
was  Master  of  the  »icred  Palace.  Their  names  do.  not 
occur  in  the  official  lists.  While  all  Masters  of  the 
Sacred  Palace  were  Dominicans,  several  members  of 
other  orders  were  Lectors  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (e.  g. 
Peckham  O.  S.  F.,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Gan- 
terbuiy  in  1279). 

St.  Dominic's  work  as  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
consisted  partly  at  least  in  expounding  ihe  Epistles  of 
8t.  Paul  (Golonna,  O.  P.,  c.  1255,  who  says  that  the 
conomentary  was  then  extant ;  Flaminius ;  S.  An- 
tonius;  Mai  vends,  in  whose  time  the  MS.  of  the 
Epistles  used  by  the  Saint  as  Msster  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  was  preserved  in  Toulouse;  Echard;  Renazzi; 
Hortter,  etc.).  These  exegetical  lectures  were  de- 
livered to  prelates  and  to  uie  clerical  attendants  of 
cardinals  wno,  as  the  saint  observed,  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  gather  in  the  antechamber  and  to  spend 
the  time  in  gossip  while  their  masters  were  having 
audiences  with  the  pope.  According  to  Renazzi  (I, 
25),  St.  Dominic  mav  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  papal  palace  school,  since  his  Biblical  lectures 
were  the  occasion  of  its  being  established.  Catalanus, 
who.  however,  is  not  guilty  of  the  confusion  alluded 
to  above,  says  he  was  the  first  Lector  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  as  well  as  the  first  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
In  tiie  thirteenth  century  the  chief  duty  of  the  Mas- 
ter of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  to  lecture  on  Scripture 
and  to  preside  over  the  theological  school  in  the  Vati- 
can: "in  schohe  Romanse  et  Pontificise  re^mine  et  in 
pablica  sacne  scriptures  expositione"  (Echard).  The 
Ijeetores  or  Magi^ri  scHolarutn  S.  Palatii  taught  under 
hnn.  It  became  customary  for  the  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace,  according  to  Gardinal  de  Luca,  to 
preach  before  the  pope  and  his  court  in  Advent  and 
Lent.  This  had  probably  been  sometimes  done  by 
St.  Dominic.  Up  to  the  sixteenth  century  the  Master 
ct  ihe  Sacred  Palace  preached,  but  after  it  this  work 
was  permanently  entrusted  to  his  companion  (a 
Dommican).  A  further  division  of  labour  was  made 
by  Benedict  XIV  (Decree,  "Inclyta  Fratrum",  1743); 
»t  preeeot  tbe  compaoiQn  preachy  to  the  papal 


household,  and  a  Gapuchin  preaches  to  the  pope  and 
to  the  cardinals. 

But  the  work  of  the  Blaster  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
as  papal  theologian  continues  to  the  present  day. 
As  it  nas  assumed  its  actual  form  by  centuries  of 
development,  we  may  give  a  summary  of  the  legisla- 
tion respecting  it  and  the  various  functions  it  com- 
prises and  al^  of  the  honours  attaching  to  it.  The 
^'Acta"  (or  "Galenda")  of  the  Palatine  officials  in 
1409  (under  Alexander  V)  show  that  on  certain  days 
the  llil^tster  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  bound  to  deliver 
lectures  and  on  other  days  was  expected,  if  called 
upon,  either  to  propose  or  to  answer  questions  at  the 
tiaeological  conference  which  was  held  in  the  pope's 
presence.  On  30  October,  1439,  Eugene  IV  decreed 
that  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  should  rank 
next  to  the  dean  of  the  Rota,  that  no  one  should 
preach  before  the  pope  whose  sermon  had  not  been 
previously  approved  of  by  him,  and  that  in  accordance 
with  ancient  usage  no  one  could  be  made  a  doctor  of 
theolosy  in  Rome  but  by  him  (Bullarium  O.  P.,  Ill, 
81).  Sulistus  III  (13  November,  1455)  confirmed  and 
amplified  the  second  part  of  this  decree,  but  at  the 
same  time  exempted  cardinals  from  its  operation 
(ibid.,  p.  356).  At  present  it  has  fallen  into  disuse. 
In  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  (sess.  x,  4  May,  1513)  Leo 
X  ordained  that  no  book  should  be  printed  either  in 
Rome  or  in  its  district  without  leave  from  the  cardi- 
nal vicar  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (ibicL, 
IV,  318).  Paul  V  (11  June,  1620)  and  Urban  VIH 
added  to  the  oblk»tions  imposed  by  this  decree.  So 
did  Alexander  Vu  in  1663  (Bullarium,  passim).  All 
these  later  enactments  regiud  the  inhaoitants  of  the 
Roman  Province  or  of  the  Papal  States.  They  were 
renewed  by  Benedict  XTV  (1  Sept.,  1744).  And  the 
permission  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  must 
De  got  not  only  to  print,  but  to  publish,  and  before 
the  second  permission  is  granted,  three  printed  copies 
must  be  deposited  with  mm,  one  for  himself,  another 
for  his  companion,  a  third  for  the  cardinal  vicar. 
The  Roman  Vicariate  never  examines  work  intended 
for  publication.  For  centuries  the  imprimatur  of  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  who  always  examines 
them  followed  the  Si  videbUur  Reverendiasimo  Magia" 
tro  Sacri  Palatii  of  the  cardinal  vicar:  now  in  virtue 
of  custom  but  not  of  any  ascertained  law,  since  about 
the  year  1825  the  cardinal  vicar  gives  an  imprimatur, 
and  it  follows  that  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
At  present  the  obligation  once  incumbent  on  cardinals 
of  presenting  their  work  to  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  for  his  imprimatur  has  fallen  into  disuse,  but 
through  courtesy  many  cardinals  do  present  their 
works.  In  the  Constitution '  *  Officiorum  ac  munerum  " 
(25  Jan.,  1897),  Leo  XIII  declared  that  all  persons 
residing  in  Rome  may  set  leave  from  the  Master  of 
the  Sacred  Palace  to  read  forbidden  books,  and  that  if 
authors  who  live  in  Rome  intend  to  get  their  works 
published  elsewhere,  the  joint  imprimatur  of  the  car- 
dinal vicar  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  renders 
it  unnecessaxy  to  ask  any  other  approbation.  As  is 
well  known,  if  an  author  not  resident  in  Rome  desires 
to  have  his  work  published  there,  provided  that  an 
agreement  with  the  author's  Ordinary  has  been  made 
and  that  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  judges  fa- 
vourably of  the  work,  the  imprimatur  will  be  given. 
In  this  case  the  book  is  known  oy  its  having  two  title- 
pages:  the  one  bearing  the  name  of  the  domiciliary, 
the  other  of  the  Roman  publisher. 

Before  the  establishment  of  the  Congregations  of 
the  Inquisition  (in  1542)  and  Index  (1587),  the  Mas- 
ter of  the  Sacred  Palace  condemned  books  and  forbade 
reading  them  under  censure.  Instances  of  his  so 
doing  occur  regularly  till  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century;  one  occurred  as  late  as  1604,  but 
by  degrees  this  task  has  been  appropriated  to  the 
above-mentioned  congregations  of  which  he  is  an  ex- 

officiom^mb^r.  The  M«iter  of  tb^  Sacred  Palace  was 


BCASTEE 


40 


KATAOO 


made  by  Pius  V  (29  July,  1570;  see  "BuUarium",  V, 
245)  canon  theologian  of  St.  Peter's,  but  this  Bull  was 
revoked  by  his  successor  Gregory  XIII  (11  March, 
1575).  From  the  time  when  Leo  X  recognized  the 
Roman  University  or  "  Sapienza''  (5  November,  1513; 
by  the  Decree  "Dum  suavissimos'')  he  transferred  to 
it  the  old  theological  school  of  the  papal  palace.  The 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  became  the  president  of 
the  new  theological  faculty.  The  other  members 
were  the  pope's  grand  sacristan  (an  Augustinian),  the 
commissary  of  the  Holy  Office  (a  Dominican),  the 
procurators  general  of  the  five  Mendicant  Orders,  i. 
e.  Dominican,  Franciscan  (Conventual),  Augustinian, 
Carmelite,  and  Servite,  and  the  professors  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  ancient  Lectors  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
Sixtus  y  is  by  some  regarded  as  the  founder  of  this 
colle^  or  faculty;  but  he  may  have  only  given  its 
defimte  form.  He  is  said  to  have  confirmed  the 
prerogative  enjoyed  by  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
ralaoe  of  conferring  aU  degrees  of  philosophy  and 
theology.  Instances  of  papal  diplomas  implying  this 
power  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  occur  in  the 
"BuDarium"  passim  (e.  g.  of  Innocent  IV,  6  June. 
1406).  The  presidential  authority  of  the  Master  ot 
the  Sacred  Palace  over  this,  the  greatest  theological 
faculty  in  Rome,  was  confirmed  by  Leo  XII  in  1824. 

Since  the  occupation  of  Rome  in  1870  the  Sapienza 
has  been  laicized  and  turned  into  a  state  university,  so 
that  on  the  special  occasions  when  the  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace  holds  an  examination,  e.  g.  for  the  piu*- 
pose  of  examining  all  that  are  to  be  appointea  to 
sees  in  Italy,  or  again  of  conferring  the  title  of  S.T.D., 
he  does  so,  with  the  assistance  of  the  high  dignitaries 
just  mentioned,  in  his  apartment  in  the  Vatican.  He 
IS  also  examiner  in  the  concursus  foi'  parishes  in  Rome 
which  are  held  in  the  Roman  Vicariate.  Before 
Eugene  FV  issued  the  Bull  referred  to  above,  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  in  processions,  etc., 
the  dignitary  immediately  under  the  Apostolic  subdea- 
cons,  but  when  this  pope  raised  the  auditors  of  the 
Rota  to  the  rank  of  Apostolic  subdeacons^  he  gave  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  the  place  immediately 
next  to  the  dean  who  was  in  charge  of  the  papal 
mitre.  In  1655,  Alexander  VII  put  the  other  audi- 
tors of  the  Rota  above  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace.  This  was  done,  according  to  Cardinal  de 
Luca,  solely  because  one  white  and  black  habit 
looked  badly  amon^  several  violet  soutanes.  One  of 
the  occasional  duties  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  is  performed  in  conjunction  with  the  auditors 
of  the  Rota;  namely  to  watch  over  the  three  apertures 
or  ''drums"  through  which  during  a  conclave  the 
cardinals  receive  all  communications.  In  papal  pro- 
cessions the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  walks  next  to 
the  auditors,  immediately  behind  the  bearer  of  the  tiara. 

Though  he  has,  as  we  have  seen,  gradually  lost  some 
of  his  ancient  authority  and  rank,  nevertheless  at  the 
present  day  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  is  a  very 
nigh  official.  He  is  one  of  the  three  Palatine  prelates 
(the  others  being  the  Maggiordomo  and  the  Grand 
Almoner)  to  whom  as  to  bishops,  the  papal  guards 

§  resent  arms.  He  is  alwavs  addressed,  even  by  car- 
inals,  as  "  Most  Reverend  .  In  the  Dominican  Order 
he  ranks  next  to  the  ^neral,  ex-general,  and  vicar- 
general.  He  is  ex-officio  consultor  of  the  Holy  Office, 
prelate-consultor  of  Rites,  and  perpetual  assistant 
of  the  Index.  He  is  consultor  ot  the  Biblical  Com- 
mission, and  is  frequently  consulted  on  various  mat- 
ters by  the  pope  as  his  theologian.  His  official  audience 
occurs  once  a  fortnight.  The  official  apartment  of 
the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  in  tne  Quirinal, 
and  until  recently  it  contained  the  unbroken  series  of 
portraits  of  the  Masters  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  from  St. 
Dominic  down.  These  frescoes  have  been  effaced  by 
the  present  occupants  of  the  Quirinal,  but  copies  of 
them  are  to  be  seen  in  the  temporary  apartment  of 
the  Master  qf  tb^  Sacred  Palace  m  the  VaticaQ, 


Buttarivm  0,P.,  VIII  (Rome,  1730-1740);  MSS.  in  VoKcmu 
Dominican  Order,  and  Mtnerva  Archivev  Antonius,  Chronioon, 
III  (Lyons.  1586);  Malvbnda,  Annalea  Ordinia  PrtBdicaiorum 
(Naplesj  1627);  Fontana,  Syllabtu  Maaidrorum  Saeri  Palaiii 
Apottoltd  (Rome,  1663);  db  Luca«  Hotnanm  Ctaria  Relaiio 
((Cologne,  1683):  Catalanus,  De  Maoittro  Saeri  PalatU 
Apottoliei  libri  duo  (Rome.  1761);  Quimr-EcHARD,  Scriptor, 
Ofxlinia  PrxBdieaiortim  (Paris.  1710):  Caratfa,  De  Oymnano 
(Rome.  1751),  135-145;  Henaui.  Storia  deW  Univernih  Ro- 
mana,  etc.  (Rome.  1803-1806),  pamm;  Mortibr,  Hidoire  de» 
MaitTte  GinSraux  de  VOrdre  dee  Friree  Prieheure  (Paiis,  1903,  is 
pxogreas);  Battanoudr,  Annuaire  Pant,  Cath.  (1001),  473-482. 

Reginald  Walsh. 

Master  of  the  Sentences.    See  Peter  Lombard. 

MaetriuB,  Babtholouew,  Franciscan,  philosopher 
and  theologian,  b.  near  Forli,  at  Meldola,  Italy,  in 
1602;  d.  3  Jan.,  1673.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent writers  of  his  time  on  philosophy  and  theology. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  Gesena,  and  took 
degrees  at  the  University  of  Bologna.  He  also  fre- 
quented the  Universities  of  Padua  and  Rome  before 
assuming  the  duties  of  lecturer.  He  acquired' a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology, 
being  deeply  versed  in  the  writings  of^Scotus.  He  was 
an  open-minded  and  independent  scholar.  As  a  con- 
troversialist he  was  harsh  and  arrogant  towards  his 
opponents,  mingling  invective  with  his  arguments. 
His  opinions  on  some  philosophical  questions  were 
fiercely  combatted  by  many  of  his  contemporaries  and 
especially  by  Matthew  Ferchi  and  the  Irish  Franciscan, 
John  Ponce.  When  presenting  the  second  volume  of 
his  work  on  the  *' Sentences''  to  Alexander  VII,  to 
whom  he  had  dedicated  it,  the  pope  asked  him  where 
he  had  learned  to  treat  his  opponent  Ferchi  in  such  a 
rough  manner:  Mastrius  answered, "  From  St.  Augus- 
tine and  St.  Jerome,  who  in  defence  of  their  respective 
opinions  on  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  fought 
hard  and  not  without  reason":  the  pope  smilinely 
remarked,  '*  From  such  masters  other  uimgs  coulooe 
learned".  Ponce  in  his  treatise  on  Lofficliolds  that 
with  qualifying  explanations  God  may  be  included  in 
the  Categories.  Mastrius  in  combatting  this  opinion 
characteristically  savs,  ''Hie  Pontius  male  tractat 
Deum  sicut  et  alter  .  Mastrius  had  a  well-ordered 
intellect  which  is  seen  in  the  clearness  and  precision 
with  which  he  sets  forth  the  subject-matter  of  dis- 
cussion. His  arguments  for  and  against  a  proposition 
show  real  critical  power  and  are  expressed  m  accurate 
and  clear  language.  His  numerous  quotations  from 
ancient  and  contemporanr  authors  and  various  schools 
of  thought  are  a  proof  of  his  extensive  reading.  His 
works  shed  light  on  some  of  the  difficult  questions  in 
Scotistic  philosophy  and  theology.  His  "  Philosophy " 
in  five  volumes  folio,  his  "  Commentai:ies "  on  the 
''Sentences"  in  four  volumes,  and  his  Moral  Theologr 
"  ad  mentem  S.  Bona  ventures"  in  one  volume  were  all 

published  at  Venice. 

Waddino-Sbaralka,  Scriptoree  ord.  min.  (Rome,  1806); 
loANNES  A  S.  Aktonio,  Bibliothcca  univ.  franc.  (Madrid,  1732); 
THEULns,  Triumphua  Seraphieua  (Velletri,  1656);  FRANcann, 
Biblioeo/ia  di  ecriUari  franceecani  (Modena,  1693);  HuBTsa, 
Nomenclator. 

Gregoby  Cleabt. 

Mataco  Indians  (or  Mataguato). — ^A  group  of 
wild  tribes  of  very  low  culture,  ranging  over  a 
great  part  of  the  western  Chaco  region,  about  the 
head  waters  of  the  Vermejo  and  the  Pilcomayo,  in  the 
Argentine  province  of  Salta  and  the  Bolivian  prov- 
ince of  Tarija,  and  noted  for  the  efforts  made  by. 
Jesuit  and  Franciscan  missionaries  in  their  behalf  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  group  con- 
sists, or  formerly  consisted,  of  about  a  dozen  tribes 
speaking  the  same  language  with  slight  dialectic  differ- 
ences, and  together  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic 
stock,  the  Matacoan  or  Mataguayan,  which,  however, 
Quevedo  suspects  to  be  connected  with  the  Guaycuran 
stock,  to  wnich  belong  the  Toba,  Mocobf  and  the 
famous  Abipon  tribes.  Of  the  Matacoan  group  the 
principal  tribes  were  the  Mataco,  Mataguayo,  and 

Vejojs.    At  present  the  wame^  m  most  ^neral  uw 


IIATSLIOA  41  MATERIALISM 

are  Mataoo  in  Argentina  and  Nocten  (corrupted  from  Father  Joseph  Araoz,  with  Quevedo'is  Studies  of  tte 

their  Chiriguano  name)   in  Bolivia.     From  60,000  Nocten  and  Vejoz  dialects,  from  various  sources. 

(estimated)  in  the  mission  period  they  are  now   re-         Araos,  Orammar  and  DietUmary;  Brintok,  American  Root 

duoed  to  about  20,000  souls.    In  1690  Father  Arc6,  {?S^York.i80i);CHARucvoix.^irf  d«Pam^ 

from  the  Jesuit  college  of  Tarija,  attempted  the  first  '^^i^^f^kll^ti^f^dlTi^^ 

miSSiOa  among  the  Mataguayo  and  Chinguano,   but  da  Qran  Chaoo  (Cordoba,  1733);   Paob,  La  PUUa,  the  Argen- 

with  little  result,  owing  to  their  wandering  habit.  ?S5^£r^«^j?!L°^/'"*'°^^  ^^^'^t^^^^ 

tiwj  ^ I    ^u  . u-.-  . -^   K..:u    K«4.  «l««  •.««{«rA<i  Otto  Men  net  Oran  Ctacco  (Flopence,  1881),  tr.,  Eiont  MotUhM 

Houses  and   churches  were   built,  but  the  natives  anthe Oran Chaco  (London.  1886):  duaVBDO,  Lenguae  Ar^m- 

poured  m  and  out,  hke  the  water  through  a  bottom-  Hwu  (Dialecto  Nooten,  Dialecto  Vejoi)  in  Bol.  del  IntMuto 

less  barrel",  and,  at  last,  weary  of  the  remonstrances  Oeogrdfico  Argentina,  XVI-XVII  (Buenoa  Airea.  1896). 
of  the  missionaries,  burned  the  missions,  murdered  James  Moonby. 

several  of  the  priests,  and  drove  the  others  out  of  the        Matelica.    See  Fabriano  and  Matbuca,Dioce8B 

country.     At  a  later  period,  1756,  the  Jesuit  mission  of. 

of  San  Ignado  de  Ledesma  on  the  Rio  Grande,  a        Mater,  a  titular  bishopric  in  the  province  of  Bysan- 

southern  head  stream  of  the  Vermejo.  was  founded  tium,  mentioned  as  a  free  dty  by  Plmy  under  the  name 

for  Toba  and  Mataguayo,  of  whom  600  were  enrolled  of  Matera  (Hist,  natur,,  V,  iv,  6).    Mgr.  Toulotte 

there  at  the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  order  in  1767.  ("Gdogniphie  de  TAfrique    chr^tienne",  prooonsu- 

About  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  oentiuy  the  Fran-  laire,  197)  cites  only  two  occupants  of  this  see:  Rusti- 

ciscans  of  Tarija  undertook  to  restore  the  mission  cianus,  who  died  shortly  before  411,  and  QuintasiuB, 

work  in  the  Chaco.  foimding  a  number  of  establish-  ^ho  succeeded  him.    Gams  (Series  episcoporum,  467) 

ments,  among  which  were  Salinas,  occupied  by  Mata-  mentions  four:  Rustidanus,  Cultasius  for  Quintasius, 

guayo  and  Chiriguano,  and  Centa  (now  Oran.  Salta  Adelfius  in  484,  and  Victor  about  the  year  656.   Mater 

province)^  occupied  by  Mataguayo  and  Vejo«,  the  two  i^  now  known  as  Mateur,  a  small  town  of  4000  inhabi- 

missions  m  1799  containing  nearly  900  Indians,  with  tants,  in  great  part  Christian,  and  is  situated  in  Tunis. 

7300  cattle.    With  the  declme  of  the  Spanish  power  xhe  modem  town  is  encircled  with  a  wall,  with  three 

these  missions  also  fell  into  decay  and  the  Indians  gates;  it  is  situated  on  the  railway  from  Tunis  to  Bi« 

scattered  to  their  forests  and  rivers.    In  1895  Father  ^erta,  not  far  from  the  lake  to  which  it  has  given  its 

Gionnecchini,  passing  by  the  place  of  the  old  Centa  name. 

mission,  found  a  cattle  corral  where  the  church  had  g.  VAiLBdfe. 

been.     An  interesting  account  of  the  present  condi-        m».«.^,.     c^  A^«««^r»A    A«^t««xw^r..a«  ^« 
tion  of  the  wild  MaSco  is  quoted  by  Wedo  from        Matera.    See  Acbrbnza,  Archdiocbsb  of. 

4  letter  by  Father  Alejandro  Corrado,  Francis-  Materialism. — ^As  the  word  itself  signifies.  Material- 
^AUf  Tarija.  Their  houses  are  light  brush  structures  ism  is  a  philosophical  system  which  regards  matter  as 
scattered  through  the  forests,  hardly  high  enough  to  the  only  reality  in  the  world^  which  undertakes  to 
allow  of  standing  upright,  and  are  abandoned  for  explain  every  event  in  the  umverse  as  resulting  from 
others  set  up  in  another  place  as  often  as  insects  or  ao-  the  conditions  and  activitv  of  matter,  and  whidi  thus 
cumulation  of  filth  make  necessary.  The  only  fur-  denies  the  existence  of  God  and  the  soul.  Itisdiamet- 
niture  is  a  wooden  mortar  with  a  few  earthen  pots,  rically  opposed  to  Spiritualism  and  Idealism,  which| 
and  some  skins  for  sleeping.  Men  and  women  snave  in  so  far  as  they  are  one-sided  and  exclusive,  declare 
their  heads  and  wear  a  single  garment  about  the  lower  that  evervthing  in  the  world  is  spiritual,  and  that  the 
part  of  the  body.  The  men  also  pluck  out  the  beard  world  ana  even  matter  itself  are  mere  conceptions  or 
and  paint  the  face  and  body.  They  hve  chiefly  upon  ideas  in  the  thinking  subject.  Materialism  is  older 
fish  and  the  fruit  of  the  algarroba,  a  species  of  mesquit  than  Spiritualism,  if  we  regard  the  development  of 
or  honey-locust,  but  will  eat  anjrthing  that  is  not  philosophy  as  beginning  in  Greece.  The  ancient  In- 
poisonous,  even  rats  and  ^asshoppers.  From  the  dian  philosophy,  however,  is  idealistic;  according  to  it 
algarroba  they  prepare  an  mtoxicating  Uquor  which  there  is  only  one  real  being,  Brahma;  everything  else 
rouses  them  to  a  fighting  frenzy.  Their  principal  is  appearance,  Afa/a.  In  Greece  the  first  attempts  at 
ceremony  is  in  connexion  with  the  ripening  of  the  philosophy  were  more  or  less  materialistic;  they  as- 
algarroba,  when  the  priests  in  fantastic  dress  go  about  sumed  the  existence  of  a  single  primordial  matter— 
the  trees,  dancing  and  singing  at  the  top  of  their  voices  water,  earth,  fire,  air — or  of  the  four  elements  from 
to  the  sound  of  a  wooden  drum,  keeping  up  the  din  which  the  world  was  held  to  have  developed.  Ma- 
day  and  night.  A  somewhat  similar  ceremony  takes  terialism  was  methodically  developed  by  the  Atomists. 
place  when  a  yoimg  girl  arrives  at  pubertv.  Every-  The  first  and  also  the  most  important  systematic 
thing  is  in  common,  and  a  woman  clivides  ner  load  of  Materialist  was  Democritus,  the  "  laughing  philoeo- 
fruits  or  roots  witn  her  neighbours  without  even  a  pher".  He  tau^t  that  out  of  nothinp  comes  nothing; 
word  of  thanks.  Thej^  recognize  no  authority,  even  .  that  everything  is  the  result  of  combination  and  divi- 
of  parents  over  tibeir  cmldren.  The  men  occupy  them-  sion  of  parts  (atoms) ;  that  these  atoms,  separated  bv 
selves  with  fishing  or  occasional  hunting,  their  arms  empty  spaces,  are  infinitel}r  numerous  and  variea. 
being  the  bow  and  dub.  The  women  do  practically  all  Even  to  man  he  extended  his  cosmological  Material- 
the  other  work.  ism,  and  was  thus  the  founder  of  Materialism  in  the 

Blarria^e  is  simple  and  at  the  will  of  the  young  peo-  narrow  sense,  that  is  the  denial  of  the  soul.    The  soul 

pie,  the  wife  usually  going  to  live  with  her  husband's  is  a  complex  of  very  fine,  smooth,  round,  and  fieiy 

relatives.    Polygamy  and  adultery  are  infrequent,  but  atoms:    these  are  highly  mobile  and  penetrate  the 

divorce  is  easy.    The  woman  receives  little  attention  whole  body,  to  which  they  impart  life.    Empedocles 

in  pregnancy  or  childbirth,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  was  not  a  thorough-going  Materialist,  although  he  re- 

father  conforms  to  the  couvade.    Children  are  named  garded  the  four  elements  with  love  and  hatred  as  the 

when  two  or  three  years  old.    Abortion  is  very  fre-  formative  principles  of  the  universe,  and  refused  to 

quent;  infanticide  more  rare,  but  the  infant  is  often  recognize  a  spiritual  Creator  of  the  world.    Aristotle 

buried  alive  on  the  breast  of  the  dead  mother.  reproaches  tne  Ionian  philosophers  in  general  with 

Disease  is  driven  off  by  the  medicine  men  with  sing-  attempting  to  explain  the  evolution  of  the  world  with- 

ing  and  shaking  of  rattles.    They  believe  in  a  good  out  the  Nou8  (intelligence) ;  he  re^rded  Protagoras, 

spirit  to  whom  they  seem  to  pay  no  worship;  and  in  who  first  introduced  a  spiritual  principle,  as  a  sober 

a  malevolent  night  spirit,  whom  they  strive  to  pro-  man  among  the  inebriated. 

pitiate.     They  Believe  that  the  soul,  after  death.        The  Socratic  School  introduced  a  reaction  against 

enters  into  the  body  of  some  animal.    The  best  work  Materialism.    A  little  later,   however,   Materialism 

apon  the   language   of  the   Mataco  tribes  is  the  found  a  second  Democritus  in  Epicurus,  who  treated 

grunmar  and  diodonaiy  of  the  Jesuit  missionary,  the  system  in  greater  detail  and  gave  it  a  deeper  f oun- 


MATSBIAUSM                         42  ISATSBIAUSM 

dation.  The  statement  that  nothing  comes  from  soul  cease  to  exist.  However,  the  soul  is  no  mero 
nothing^  he  supported  by  declaring  that  otherwise  odourof  a  body,  but  a  being  with  real  activity;  conse- 
everythmg  might  come  from  everything.  This  argu-  quently,  it  must  itself  be  real/  and  likewise  distinct 
ment  is  verv  pertinent,  since  if  there  were  nothing,  from  the  body,  since  thought  and  volition  are  incor- 
nothing  could  come  into  existence,  i.  e.  if  there  were  poreal  activities,  and  not  movement  which,  according 
no  cause.  An  almighty  cause  can  of  itself  through  its  to  Lucretius  at  least,  is  the  only  function  of  the  atoms, 
power  supply  a  substitute  for  matter^hich  we  cannot  Christianity  reared  a  mighty  dam  against  Material- 
create  but  can  only  transform.  Epicurus  further  ism,  and  it  was  only  with  the  return  to  antiquity  in  the 
asserted  that  bodies  alone  exist;  only  tiie  void  is  in-  so-c&lled  restoration  of  the  sciences  that  the  Human- 
corporeal.  He  distinguished,  however,  between  com-  ists  again  made  it  a  powerful  factor.  Giordano  Bruno, 
pound  bodies  and  simple  bodies  or  atoms^  which  are  the  Pantheist,  was  also  a  Materialist:  "Matter  is  not 
absolutely  unchangeable.  Since  space  is  infinite,  the  without  its  forms,  but  contains  them  all^  and  since  it 
atoms  must  likewise  be  infinitely  numerous.  This  carries  what  is  wrapped  up  in  itself,  it  is  in  truth  all 
last  deduction  is  not  warranted,  since,  even  in  infinite  nature  and  the  mother  of  all  the  hving. "  But  the 
space,  the  bodies  might  be  limited  in  number — ^in  fact,  classical  age  of  Materialism  began  with  the  ei^teenth 
tney  must  be,  as  otherwise  they  would  entirel}[  fill  century,  when  de  la  Mettrie  (1709-61)  wrote  his  "  His- 
space  and  therefore  render  movement  impossible,  toire  naturelle  de  T&me"  and  "L'homme  machine". 
And  yet  Epicurus  ascribes  motion  to  the  atoms,  i.  e.  He  holds  that  all  that  feels  must  be  material:  ''The 
constant  motion  downwards.  Since  many  of  them  soul  is  formed,  it  grows  and  decreases  with  the  organs 
deviate  from  their  original  direction,  collisions  result  of  the  body,  wherefore  it  must  also  share  in  the  latter's 


and  various  combinations  are  formed.  The  difference  death" — a  palpable  fallacy,  since  even  if  the  body  is 
between  one  body  and  another  is  due  solely  to  different  only  the  soul's  instrument,  the  soul  must  be  affected 
modes  of  atomic  combination;  the  atoms  themselves  by  the  varying  conditions  of  the  body.  In  the  case  of 
have  no  quality,  and  differ  only  in  size,  shape,  and  this  Materialist  we  find  the  moral  consequences  of  the 
weight.  These  materialistic  speculations  contradict  svstem  revealed  without  disguise.  In  his  two  works, 
directly  the  universally  recognized  laws  of  nature.  *^LaVolupt4"  and"  L'artdejouer",  he  glorifies  licen- 
Inertia  is  an  essential  quality  of  matter,  which  cannot  tiousness.  The  most  famous  work  ot  this  period  is  the 
set  itself  in  motion,  cannot  of  itself  fix  the  direction  of  "  Syst^me  de  la  nature  "  of  Baron  Holbach  (1723-89) . 
its  motion,  least  of  all  change  the  direction  of  the  According  to  this  work  there  exists  nothing  but  nature, 
motion  once  imparted  to  it.  The  existence  of  all  these  and  all  beings,  which  are  supposed  to  be  beyond  na- 
capabilities  in  matter  is  assumed  by  Epicuni3:  the  ture,  are  creatures  of  the  imagination.  Man  is  a  con- 
atoms  fall  downwards,  before  there  is  either  "  up"  or  stituent  part  of  nature;  his  moral  endowment  is  sim- 
"down";  they  have  weight,  although  there  is  as  yet  ply  a  modification  of  his  physical  constitution,  de- 
no  earth  to  lend  them  heaviness  by  its  attraction,  rived  from  his  peculiar  organization.  Even  Voltaire 
From  the  random  clash  of  the  atoms  could  result  only  found  himself  compelled  to  offer  a  determined  opposi- 
conf  usion  and  not  order,  least  of  all  that  far-reaching  tion  to  these  extravagant  attacks  on  everything  spirit- 
design  which  is  manifested  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ual. 

world,  especially  in  organic  structures  and  mental  In  Germaxiy  Materialism  was  vigorously  assailed, 
activities.  However,  the  soul  and  its  ori^  present  especially  by  Leibniz  (q.  v.).  As,  however,  this  philoa- 
no  difficulty  to  the  Materialist.  Accordmg  to  him  opher  soueht  to  replace  it  with  his  doctrine  of  monads, 
the  soul  is  a  kind  of  vapour  scattered  throu^out  the  an  out-and-out  spiritualistic  system,  he  did  not  give  a 
whole  body  and  mixed  with  a  little  heat.  The  bodies  real  refutation.  On  the  other  hand,  Kant  was  sup- 
surrounding  us  give  off  continually  certain  minute  par-  posed  to  have  broken  definitively  the  power  of  Materi- 
tides  which  penetrate  to  our  souls  through  our  sense-  alism  by  the  so-called  idealistic  argument,  which  runs: 
organs  and  excite  mental  images.  With  the  dissolu-  Matter  is  revealed  to  us  only  in  consciousness;  it  cau- 
tion of  the  body,  the  corporeal  soul  is  also  dissolved,  not  therefore  be  the  cause  or  the  principle  of  con- 
This  view  betrays  a  complete  misapprehension  of  the  sciousness.  This  argument  proves  absolutely  nothing 
immaterial  nature  of  psychical  states  as  opposed  to  against  Materialism,  unless  we  admit  that  our  con- 
those  of  the  body — ^to  say  nothing  of  the  childish  sciousness  creates  matter,  i.  e.  that  matter  has  no 
notion  of  sense-perception,  which  modem  physiology  existence  independent  of  consciousness.  If  conscious- 
can  regard  only  with  an  indulgent  smile.  ness  or  the  soul  creates  matter,  the  latter  cannot  im- 
Epicurean  Materialism  received  poetic  expression  part  existence  to  the  soul  or  to  any  psychical  activity. 
'  and  further  development  in  the  didactic  poem  of  the  Materialism  would  indeed  be  thus  utterly  annihilated: 
Roman  Lucretius.  This  bitter  opponent  of  the  gods,  there  would  be  no  matter.  But,  if  matter  is  reaT,  it 
like  the  modem  representatives  of  Materialism,  places  may  possess  all  kinds  of  activities,  even  psychical,  as 
it  in  outspoken  opposition  to  religion.  His  cosmology  the  Materialists  aver.  As  long  as  the  impossibility  of 
is  that  of  Epicurus;  but  Lucretius  goes  much  further,  this  is  not  demonstrated,  Materialism  is  not  refuted, 
inasmuch  as  he  really  seeks  to  give  an  explanation  oi  Idealism  or  Phenomenalism,  which  entirely  denies  the 
the  order  in  the  world,  which  Epicurus  referred  un-  existence  of  matter,  is  more  absurd  than  Materialism, 
hesitatingly  to  mere  chance.  Lucretius  asserts  that  it  There  i^,  however,  some  truth  in  the  Kantian  reason- 
is  just  one  of  the  infinitely  num^us  possibilities  in  ing.  Consciousness  or  the  psychical  is  far  better 
the  arrangement  of  the  atoms;  the  present  order  known  to  us  than  the  material;  what  matter  rtolly  is, 
was  as  possible  as  any  other.  He  taxes  particular  no  science  has  yet  made  clear.  The  intellectual  or  the 
pains  to  disprove  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  seeking  psychical,  on  the  other  hand,  is  presented  immediately 
thus  to  dispel  the  fear  of  death,  which  is  the  cause  of  to  our  consciousness;  we  experience  our  thoughts, 
so  much  care  and  crime.  The  soul  {anima)  and  the  volitions,  and  feelings;  in  their  full  clearness  they 
mind  {animus)  consist  of  the  smallest,  roundest,  and  stand  before  the  eye  of  the  mind.  From  the  Kantian 
most  mobile  atoms.  That  "  feeling  is  an  excitement  standpoint  a  refutation  of  Materialism  is  out  of  the 
of  the  atoms",  he  lays  down  as  a  firmly  established  question.  To  overcome  it  we  must  show  that  the  soul 
principle.  He  says:  "When  the  flavour  of  the  wine  is  an  entity,  independent  of  and  essentially  distinct 
vanishes,  or  the  odour  of  the  ointment  passes  away  in  from  the  body,  an  immaterial  substance;  only  as  such 
the  air,  we  notice  no  diminution  of  weight.  Even  so  can  it  be  immortal  and  survive  the  dissolution  of  the 
with  the  body  when  the  soul  has  disappeared. "  He  body.  For  Kant,  however,  substance  is  a  purely  sub- 
overlooks  the  fact  that  the  flavour  and  odour  are  not  jective  form  of  the  understanding,  by  means  of  which 
necessarily  lost,  even  though  we  cannot  measure  we  arrange  our  experiences.    The  independence  of  the 

soul  womd  thus  not  be  objective;  it  would  be  simply 
an  idea  conceived  by  us.    Immortality  would  also  be 


them.    That  they  do  not  perish  is  now  certain^  and. 
we  must  therefore  conclude,  still  less  does  the  spiritual 


KATBRXAXJSM                         43  KATBSIALZ82C 

merely  a  thought-product;  this  the  Materialists  gladly  clearly  perceived  by  us  than  the  causality  of  fire  in  the 

admit,  but  they  call  it,  in  plainer  terms,  a  piue  fabn-  production  of  heat.     We  must  therefore  reject  as 

cation.  false  the  theorv  of  a  closed  system  of  natural  causation, 

The  German  Idealists.  Fichte,  H^l,  and  Schelling,  if  this  means  the  exclusion  of  spiritual  causes. 
seriously  espoused  the  Phenomenalism  of  Kant,  de*  But  modem  science  claims  to  have  given  positive 
claring  that  matter,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  universe,  is  proof  that  in  the  himian  body  there  is  no  place  for  the 
a  subjective  product.    Thereby  indeed  Materialism  is  soul.    The  great  discovery  by  R.  Mayer  (1814-78), 
entirely  overcome,  but  the  Kantian  method  of  refuta-  Joule  (1818-89),  and  Helmholtz  (1821-94)  of  the  con- 
tion  ia  reduced  to  absurdity.    The  reaction  against  servation  of  energy  proves  that  energy  cannot  disap- 
thia  extravagant  Spiritualism  was  inevitable,  and  it  pear  in  nature  and  cannot  originate  there.     But  tne 
resulted  by  a  sort  of  necessary  consequence  ij^the  op-  soul  could  of  itself  create  energy,  and  there  would  also 
posite  extreme  of  outspoken  Materialism.  /Repelled  be  energy  lost,  whenever  an  external  stimulus  influ- 
by  these  fantastic  views,  so  contrary  to  all  reality,  men  enced  the  soul  and  «i ve  rise  to  sensation,  which  is  not 
turned  their  whole  energy  to  the  investigation  of  a  form  of  energy.     Now  recent  experiment  has  shown 
nature.     The  extraordinary  success  achiev^  in  this  that  the  energy  in  the  human  body  is  exactly  equiv- 
domain  led  many  investigators  to  overestimate  the  im-  alent  to  the  nutriment  consumed.     In  these  facts, 
portance  of  matter,  its  forces,  and  its  laws,  with  which .  however,  there  is  absolutely  nothing  against  the  exist- 
they  believed  they  could  explain  even  the  spiritual,  ence  of  the  soul.    The  law  of  the  conservation  of 
The  chief  representatives  of  Materialism  as  a  system  energy  is  an  empirical  law,  not  a  fundamental  princi- 
d  urine  tiiis  period  are  Btlchner  (1824-99),  the  author  pie  oTthought;  it  is  deduced  from  the  material  world 
of  •*  Kraft  und  Stoff ";  K.  Vogt  (1817-96),  who  held  and  is  based  on  the  activity  of  matter.     A  body  can- 
that  thought  is  "secreted "  by  the  brain,  as  gall  by  the  not  set  itself  in  motion,  can  produce  no  force;  it  must 
liver  and  urine  by  the  kidneys;    Czolbe  (1817-73);  be  impelled  by  another,  which  in  the  impact  loses  its 
Moleschott,  to  whom  his  Materialism  brought  politi-  own  power  of  movement.     This  is  not  lost,  but  is 
cal  fame.   Bom  on  9  August,  1822,  at  Herzogenbusch,  changed   into  the   new  movement.     Thus,   in  the 
North  Brabant,  he  studied  medicine,  natural  science,  material  world,  motion,  which  is  really  kinetic  energy, 
and  the  philosophy  of  H^el  at  Heidelberg  from  1842.  can  neither  originate  nor  altogether  cease.    This  law 
After  some  years  of  medical  practice  in  Utrecht,  he  does  not  hold  good  for  the  immaterial  world,  which  is 
qualified  as  instructor  in  ohysiology  and  anthropology  not  subject  to  the  law  of  inertia.     That  our  higher 
at  the  University  of  Heiaelberg.     His  writings,  espe-  intellectual  activities  are  not  boimd  by  the  law  is  most 
cially  his  "  Kreislauf  des  Lebens"  (1852),  created  a  plainly  seen  in  our  freedom  of  will,  by  which  we  deter- 
great  sensation.     On  account  of  the  gross  materialism,  mine  ourselves  either  to  move  or  to  remain  at  rest, 
which  he  displayed  both  in  his  works  and  his  lectures,  But  the  intellectual  activities  take  place  with  the  co- 
he  received  a  warning  from  the  academic  senate  b}'  operation  of  the  sensory  processes;  and,  since  these 
conunand  of  the  Ciovemment,  whereupon  he  accepted  latter  are  functions  of  the  bodily  organs,  they  are  like 
in  1854  a  ciUl  to  the  newly  founded  University  of  them  subject  to  the  law  of  inertia.     They  do  not  enter 
Zurich.     In  1861  Cavour,  the  Italian  premier,  granted  into  activity  without  some  stimulus;  they  cannot  stop 
him  a  chair  at  Turin,  whence  fifteen  years  later  he  was  their  activity  without  some  external  influence.     They 
called  to  the  Sapiema  in  Rome,  which  owed  its  foun-  are,  therefore,  subject  to  the  law  of  the  conservation  of 
dation  to  the  popes.    Here  death  suddenly  overtook  energy,  whose  applicability  to  the  human  body,  as 
Hini  in  1893,  and,  just  as  he  had  had  burnt  the  bodies  shown  by  biological  experiment,  proves  nothing  against 
of  his  wife  and  daughter  who  had  committed  suicide,  the  soul.    Ck>nsequently,  while  even  without  experi- 
he  also  appointed  in  his  will  that  his  own  body  should  ment,  one  must  admit  the  law  in  the  case  of  sentient 
be  reduced  to  ashes.     The  most  radical  rejection  of  beings,  it  can  in  no  wise  affect  a  pure  spirit  or  an  angel, 
everything  ideal  is  contained  in  the  revised  work  The  "Achilles ''of  materialistic  philosophers,  therefore, 
"Der  Einaige  und  sein  Eigentiun''  (1845;   3rd  ed.,  proves  nothing  against  the  soul.     It  was  accordingly 
1893)  of  Muc  Stirner,  which  rejects  everything  tran-  highly  opportune  when  the  eminent  physiologist,  Du- 
soending  the  particular  Ego  and  its  self-will.  bois  Keymond  (1818-96),  called  a  vigorous  halt  to  his 
Thebrilliant  success  of  the  natural  sciences  gave^^  colleague  by  his  "Ignoramus  et  Ignorabimus''.    In 
Materialism  a  powerful  support.     The  scientist,  in-  his  lectures,  "Ueber  die  GrenzenderNaturerkenntniss'' 
deed,  is  exposea  to  the  danger  of  overlooking  the  soul,  (Leipzig,  1872),  he  shows  that  feeling,  consciousness, 
and  consequently  of  denying  it.     Absorption  in  the  etc.,  cannot  be  explained  from  the  atoms.    He  errs  in- 
study  of  material  nature  is  apt  to  blind  one  to  the  deed  in  declaring  permanently  inexplicable  everything 
spiritual ;  but  it  is  an  evident  fallacy  to  deny  the  soul,  for  which  natural  science  cannot  account;  the  explana- 
on  the  ground  that  one  cannot  experimentally  prove  tion  must  be  furnished  by  philosophy, 
its  existence  by   physical  means.     Natural  science  Even  theologians  have  defended  Materiali«n.  Thus. 
oversteps  its  limits  when  it  encroaches  on  the  spiritual  for  example,  F.  D.  Strauss  in  his  work  ''  Der  alte  juna 
domain  and  claims  to  pronounce  there  an  expert  de-  neue  Glaube  "  (1872)  declares  openly  for  Materialism, 
vision,  and  it  is  a  palpable  error  to  declare  that  science  and  even  adopts  it  as  the  basis  of  his  religion;  the 
demonstrates  the  non-existence  of  the  soul.     Various  material  universe  with  its  laws,  although  they  occa- 
proofs  from  natural  science  are  of  course  brought  for-  sionally  crush  us,  must  be  the  object  of  our  veneration. 
ward  by  the  Materialists.     The  "closed  system  of  The  cultivation  of  music  compensates  him  for  the  loss 
natural  causation''  is  appealed  to:  experience  every-  of  all  ideal  goods.    Among  tne  materialistic  philoso- 
where  fijids  each  natural  phenomenon  based  upon  phcrsof  this  time,  Ueberweg  (1826-71),  author  of  the 
another  as  its  cause,  and  the  chain  of  natural  causes  well-known  ''History  of  Philosophv*',  deserves  men- 
would  be  broken  were  the  same  brought  in.     On  the  tion;  it  is  noteworthy  that  he  at  first  supported  the 
other  hand,  Sigwart  (1830-1904)  justly  observes  that  Aristotelean  teleology,  but  later  fell  away  into  matenal- 
the  soul  has  its  share  in  natural  causation,  and  is  there-  istic  mechanism.    There  is  indeed  considerable  diffi- 
fore  included  in  the  system.     At  most  it  could  be  de-  culty  in  demonstrating  mathematically  the  final  ob- 
duced  from  this  system  that  a  pure  spirit,  that  God  ject  of  nature;  with  those  to  whom  the  consideration 
could  not  int^ere  in  the  course  of  nature;   but  this  of  the  marvellous  wisdom  displayed  in  its  ordering 
cannot  be  proved  bv  either  experience  or  reason.     On  does  not  bring  the  conviction  that  it  cannot  owe  its 
the  contnry  it  is  clear  that  the  Author  of  nature  can  origin  to  blind  physi(»il  forces,  proofs  will  avail  but 
interfere  in  its  course,  and  history  informs  us  of  His  little.    To  us,  indeed,  it  is  inconceivable  how  any  one 
many  minculoiis  interventions.     In  any  case  it  is  be-  can  overlook  or  deny  the  evidences  of  design  and  of 

Sond  doubt  that  our  bodily  conditions  are  influenced  the  adaptation  of  means  for  the  attainment  of  mani- 

y  oitf  ideas  and  volitions,  and  this  influence  is  more  fold  ends. 


MATERIALISM 


44 


MATBEIALI8M 


The  teleological  question,  so  awkward  for  Material- 
ism, was  thought  to  be  finally  settled  by  Darwinism, 
in  which,  as  K.  Vogt  cynicallv  expressed  it,  God  was 
shown  tne  door.  The  blina  operation  of  natural 
forces  and  laws,  without  spiritual  agencies,  was  held  to 
explain  the  origin  of  species  and  their  purposiveness 
as  well.  Although  Darwin  himself  was  not  a  Material- 
ist, his  mechanical  explanation  of  teleology  brought 
water  to  the  mill  of  Materialism,  which  recognizes  only 
the  mechanism  of  the  atoms.  This  evolution  of 
matter  from  the  protozoon  to  man,  announced  from 
university  chairs  as  the  result  of  science,  was  eagerly 
taken  up  by  the  social  democrats,  and  became  the 
fimdamental  tenet  of  their  conception  of  the  world 
and  of  life.  Although  officially  socialists  disown  their 
hatred  of  reUgion,  the  rejection  of  the  higher  destiny  of 
man  and  the  consequent  falling  back  on  the  material 
order  serve  them  most  efficiently  in  stirring  up  the  de- 
luded and  discontented  masses.  Against  this  domina- 
tion of  Materialism  among  high  and  low  there  set  in  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  reaction, 
which  was  due  in  no  small  measiu^  to  the  alarming 
translation  of  the  materialistic  theory  into  practice  b^ 
the  socialists  and  anarchists.  At  bottom,  nowever,  it 
is  but  another  instance  of  what  the  oldest  experience 
shows:  the  line  of  progress  is  not  vertical  but  spiral. 
Overstraining  in  one  direction  starts  a  rebound  in  the 
other,  which  usually  reaches  the  opposite  extreme. 
The  spiritual  will  not  be  reduced  to  the  material,  but 
it  frequently  commits  the  error  of  refusing  to  tolerate 
the  co-existence  of  matter. 

Thus  at  present  the  reaction  against  MateriaUsm 
leads  in  many  instances  to  an  extreme  Spiritualism  or 
Phenomenalism,  which  regards  matter  merely  as  a 
projection  of  the  soul.  Hence  also  the  widely-echoed 
cry:  "Back  to  Kant".  Kant  regarded  matter  as 
entirely  the  product  of  consciousness,  and  this  view  is 
outspokenly  adopted  by  L.  Busse,  who,  in  his  work 
"Geist  und  KSrper,  Seele  und  Leib"  (Leipzig,  1903), 
eamestty  labours  to  discredit  Materialism.  He  treats 
exhkustivelv  the  relations  of  the  psychical  to  the 
physical,  refutes  the  so-called  psycho-physical  parallel- 
ism, and  decides  in  favour  of  the  interaction  of  soul 
and  body.  His  conclusion  is  the  complete  denial  of 
matter.  "  Metaphysically  the  world-picture  changes 
....  The  corporeal  world  as  such  disappears — it  is  a 
mere  appearance  for  the  apprehending  mind — and  is 
succeeded  by  something  spiritual.  The  idealistio- 
spirituaUstic  metaphysics,  whose  validity  we  here 
tacitly  assume  without  further  justification,  reco^aizes 
no  corporeal  but  only  spiritual  being.  '  All  reality  is 
spiritual',  is  its  verdict '  (p.  479). 

How  little  Materialism  has  to  fear  from  Kantian 
rivalry  is  plainly  shown,  among  others,  by  the  natural 
philosopher  UexkuU.  In  the  "Neue  Rundschau"  of 
1907  (Umrisse  einer  neuen  Weltanschauung),  he  most 
vigorously  opposes  Darwinism  and  Haeckelism,  but 
finally  rejects  with  Kant  the  substantiality  of  the  soul, 
and  even  falls  back  into  the  Materialism  which  he  so 
severely  condemns.  He  says:  "The  disintegrating  in- 
fluence of  Haeckelism  on  the  spiritual  life  of  the  masses 
comes,  not  from  the  consequences  which  his  conception 
of  eternal  things  calls  forth,  but  from  the  Darwinian 
thesis  that  there  is  no  purpose  in  nature.  Really,  one 
might  suppose  that  on  the  day,  when  the  great  dis- 
covery of  the  descent  of  man  from  the  ape  was  made, 
the  call  went  forth :  '  Back  to  the  Ape '."  "  The  walls, 
which  confine  Materialism,  still  stand  in  all  their  firm- 
ness: it  is  impossible  to  explain  the  piirposive  charac- 
ter of  life  from  material  forces."  "We  are  so  con- 
stituted that  we  are  capable  of  recognizing  certain 
purposes  with  our  intellect,  while  others  we  long  for 
and  enjoy  through  our  sense  of  beauty.  One  general 
plan  binds  all  our  spiritual  and  emotional  forces  into  a 
unity. "  "  This  view  of  life  Haeckel  seeks  to  replace  by 
his  senseless  talk  about  cell-souls  and  soul-cells,  and 
thinks  by  his  boyish  trick  to  annihilate  the  giant  Kant. 


Chamberlain's  words  on  HaeckeUsm  will  find  an  echo 
in  the  soul  of  every  educated  person:  *  It  is  not  poetry, 
science,  or  philosophy,  but  a  stiU-bom  bastard  of  ml 
three'.''  But  what  does  the  "Giant  Kant|'  teach? 
That  we  ourselves  place  the  purpose  in  the  things,  but 
that  it  is  not  in  the  things  I  This  view  is  also  held  bv 
Materialists.  UexkUll  finds  the  refutation  of  Material- 
ism in  the  "  empirical  scheme  of  the  objects  ",  which  is 
formed  from  our  sense-perceptions.  'This  is  for  him, 
indeedj  identical  with  tne  Bewegungsmdodie  (melody 
of  motion),  to  which  he  reduces  objects.  Thus  again 
there  is  no  substance  but  only  motion,  which  Material- 
ism likewise  teaches.  We  shall  later  find  the  Kantian 
UexkUll  among  the  outspoken  Materialists. 

Philosophers  of  another  tendency  endeavour  to 
refute  Materialism  by  supposing  everything  endowed 
with  life  and  soul.  To  this  class  belong  Fechner, 
Wundt,  Paulsen,  Haeckel,  and  the  botanist  France, 
who  ascribe  intelligence  even  to  plants.  One  mi^t 
well  believe  that  this  is  a  radical  remedy  for  all  materi- 
alistic cravings.  The  pit^r  is  that  Materialists  should 
be  afforded  an  opportunity  for  ridicule  by  such  a 
fiction.  That  brute  matter,  atoms,  electrons  should 
possess  life  is  contrary  to  all  experience.  It  is  a 
Doast  of  modem  science  that  it  admits  only  what  is  re- 
vealed by  exact  observation;  but  the  universal  and 
imvarying  verdict  of  observation  is  that,  in  the  in- 
orgamc  world,  everything  shows  characteristics  oppo- 
site to  those  which  me  exhibits.  It  is  also  a  serious  de- 
lusion to  believe  that  one  can  explain  the  human  soul 
and  its  unitary  consciousness  on  the  supposition  of 
cell-souls.  A  number  of  souls  could  never  have  one 
and  the  same  consciousness.  Consciousness  and  every 
psychic  activity  are  immanent,  they  abide  in  the  suh- 
ject  and  do  not  operate  outwardly;  hence  each  in- 
dividual soul  has  its  own  consciousness,  and  of  any 
other  knows  absolutely  nothing.  A  combination  of 
several  souls  into  one  consciousness  is  thus  impossible. 
But,  even  if  it  were  possible,  this  composite  conscious- 
ness would  have  a  completely  different  content  from 
the  cell-souls,  since  it  would  be  a  marvel  if  all  these  felt, 
thought,  ana  willed  exactly  the  same.  In  this  view 
immortality  would  be  as  completely  done  away  with 
as  it  is  in  Materialism. 

We  have  described  this  theory  as  an  imtenable 
fiction.  R.  Semon,  however,  undertakes  to  defend  the 
existence  of  memory  in  all  living  beings  in  his  work 
''Die  Mneme  als  erhaltendes  Prinzip  im  Wechsel  des 
oi^anischen  Geschehens"  (Leipzig,  1905).  He  says: 
''The  effect  of  a  stimulus  on  living  substance  con- 
tinues after  the  stimulation,  it  has  an  engraphic  effect. 
This  latter  is  called  the  engram  of  the  corresponding 
stimulus,  and  the  sum  of  the  engrams,  which  the 
organism  inherits  or  acquires  during  its  life,  is  the 
mneme,  or  memory  in  the  widest  sense. "  Now,  if  by 
this  word  the  persistence  of  psychic  and  corporeal 
states  were  alone  signified,  there  would  be  little  to 
urge  against  this  theory.  But  by  memory  is  undei^ 
st^:>d  a  psychic  function,  for  whose  presence  in  plants 
and  minerals  not  the  slightest  plea  can  be  offered. 
The  persistence  is  even  more  easily  explained  in  the 
case  of  inorganic  nature.  This  Hylozoism,  which,  as 
Kant  rightly  declares,  is  the  death  of  all  science,  is  also 
called  the  "double  aspect  theory"  (Zweiseitentheorie), 
Fechner  indeed  regards  the  material  as  only  the  outer 
side  of  the  spiritual.  The  relation  between  them  is 
that  of  the  convex  side  of  a  curve  to  the  concave;  they 
are  essentially  one,  regarded  now  from  without  and 
again  from  within — ^the  same  idea  expressed  in  differ- 
ent words.  By  this  explanation  Materialism  is  not 
overcome  but  proclaimed.  For  as  to  the  reality  of 
matter  no  sensible  man  can  doubt;  consequently,  if 
the  spiritual  is  merely  a  special  aspect  of  matter,  it 
also  must  be  material.  The  convex  side  of  a  ring  is 
really  one  thing  with  the  concave;  there  is  but  the 
same  rin^  regarded  from  two  different  sides.  ^  Thus 
Fechner,  m  spite  of  all  his  disclaimers  of  MaterialiBihf 


MATBRIAUBM 


45 


MATERXAUSM 


must  deny  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  since  in  the  dis- 
solution Of  the  body  the  soul  must  also  peri^,  and  he 
labours  to  no  effect  when  he  tries  to  Dolster  up  the 
doctrine  of  survival  with  all  kinds  of  fantastic  ideas. 

Closely  connected  with  this  theory  is  the  so-call^ 
"  pyscho-physical  parallelism",  which  most  modem 
psycholo^sts  since  Fechner,  especially  Wundt  and 
Faulsen,  energetically  advocate.  This  emphasises  so 
strongly  the  spirituality  of  the  soul  that  it  rejects  as 
impossible  any  influence  of  the  soul  on  the  body,  and 
thus  makes  spiritual  and  bodily  activities  run  side  by 
side  (paraillel)  without  affectine  each  other.  Wundt, 
indeed,  goes  so  far  as  to  make  the  whole  world  consist 
of  will-units,  and  r^ards  matter  as  mechanized 
spiritual  activity.  Paulsen,  on  the  other  hand,  en- 
deavours to  explain  the  concurrence  of  the  two  series  of 
activities  bv  declarin|;  that  the  material  nrocesses  of  the 
body  are  the  reflection  of  the  spiritual.  One  might 
well  think  that  there  could  not  be  a  more  emphatic 
denial  of  Materialism.  Yet  this  exaggerated  Spiritual- 
ism and  Idealism  agrees  with  the  fundamental  dogma 
of  the  Materialists  in  denying  the  substantiality  and 
immortality  of  the  soul.  It  asserts  that  the  soul  is 
nothing  else  than  the  aggregate  of  the  successive  inter- 
nal activities  without  anv  psychical  essence.  This 
declaration  leads  inevitably  to  Materialism,  because 
activity  without  an  active  subject  is  inconceivable; 
and,  since  the  substantialitv  of  the  soul  is  denied,  the 
body  must  be  the  subject  of  the  spiritual  activities,  as 
otherwise  it  would  be  quite  impossible  that  to  certain 
physical  impressions  there  should  correspond  percep- 
tions, volitions,  and  movements.  In  any  case  this 
exaggerated  Spiritualism,  which  no  intelligent  person 
can  accept,  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  refutation  of 
Materialism.  Apart  from  Christian  philosophy  nov 
philosophical  system  has  yet  succeeded  in  successfully 
combatting  Materialism.  One  needs  but  a  somewhat 
accurate  kaowledge  of  the  recent  literature  of  natural 
science  and  philosophy  to  be  convinced  that  the  "  ref- 
utation" of  Materialism  by  means  of  the  latest  Ideal- 
ism is  idle  talk.  Thus,  Ostwald  proclaims  his  doctrine 
of  energy  the  refutation  of  Materialism,  and,  in  his 
"Vorlesungen  aber  Naturphilosophie",  endeavours 
"to  fill  the  yawning  chasm,  which  since  Descartes 
gapes  between  spirit  and  matter",  by  subordinating 
the  ideas  of  matter  and  spirit  under  the  concept  of 
energy.  Thus,  consciousness  also  is  energy,  the  nerve- 
energy  of  the  brain.  He  is  inclined  '^bo  recognize 
consciousness  as  an  essential  characteristic  oi  the 
energy  of  the  central  organ,  just  as  space  is  an  essential 
characteristic  of  mechanical  energy  and  time  of  kinetic 
energy. "    Is  not  this  Materialism  pure  and  simple? 

Entirely  materialistic  also  is  the  widely  accepted 
physiological  esmlanation  of  psychical  activities,  espe- 
cially of  the  feelings,  such  as  fear,  anger  etc.  This  is 
defended  (e.  g.)  by  Uexkilll,  whom  we  have  already 
referred  to  as  a  vigorous  opponent  of  Materialism.  H!e 
endeavours  to  found,  or  at  least  to  illustrate  this  by 
the  most  modem  experiments.  In  his  work  "Der 
Kampf  um  die  Tierseele"  (1903),  he  says:  "Sup- 
pose that  with  the  help  of  refined  rontgen  rays  we 
could  project  magnified  on  a  screen  in  the  form  of 
movable  shadow-waves  the  processes  in  the  nervous 
S3rstem  of  man.  According  to  our  present  knowledee, 
we  might  thus  expect  the  following.  We  observe  me 
subject  of  the  experiment,  when  a  bell  rings  near  by, 
and  we  see  the  shadow  on  the  screen  (representing  the 
wave  of  excitation)  hurry  alone  the  aumtory  nerve  to 
the  brain.  We  foUow  the  shadow  into  the  cerebrum, 
and,  if  the  person  makes  a  movement  in  response  to 
the  sound,  centrifugal  shadows  are  also  presented  to 
our  observation.  This  experiment  woxud  be  in  no 
way  different  from  any  physical  experiment  of  a  simi- 
lar nature,  except  that  in  tJie  case  of  the  brain  with  its 
intricate  eystem  of  pathways  the  course  of  the  stimulus 
and  the  transformation  of  the  accumulated  energy 
would  necessarily  form  a  very  complicated  and  con- 


fused picture. "  But  what  will  be  thereby  proved  or 
even  illustrated?  Even  without  rontgen  rays  we 
know  that,  in  the  case  of  hearing,  nerve  waves  proceed 
to  the  brain,  and  that  from  the  brain  motor  effects 
pass  out  to  the  peripheral  organs.  But  these  effects 
are  mere  movements,  not  psychical  perception;  for 
consciousness  attests  that  sensory  perception,  not  to 
speak  of  thought  and  volition,  is  altogether  different 
from  movement,  in  fact  the  very  opposite.  We  can 
think  simultaneouslv  of  opposites  (e.  g.  existence  and 
non-existence,  rouna  and  angular) ,  andthese  opposites 
must  be  simultaneouslv  present  in  our  consciousness, 
for  otherwise  we  could  not  compare  them,  nor  per- 
ceive and  declare  their  oppositeness.  Now,  it  is 
absolutely  impossible  that  a  nerve  or  an  atom  of  the 
brain  should  simultaneously  execute  opposite  move- 
ments. And,  not  merely  in  the  case  of  true  opposites, 
but  also  in  the  judgment  of  every  distinction,  the 
nerve  elements  must  simultaneously  have  different 
movements,  of  different  rapidity  and  in  different 
directions. 

An  undisguised  Materialism  is  espoused  by  A.  Kann 
in  his  "  Natuigeschichte  der  Moral  und  die  Physik  des 
Denkens",  with  the  sub-title  "Der  Idealiamus  eines 
Materi^listen"  (Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1907).  He  says: 
"To  explain  physically  the  compncated  processes  of 
thought,  it  is  above  all  necessarv  that  the  necessity  of 
admitting  anjrthing  *  psychical  be  eliminated.  Our 
ideas  as  to  what  is  good  and  bad  are  for  the  average 
man  so  intimately  connected  with  the  psychical  that 
it  is  a  prime  necessity  to  eliminate  the  psychical 
from  our  ideas  of  morality,  etc.  Only  when  pure, 
material  science  has  built  up  on  its  own  founda- 
tions the  whole  structure  of  our  morals  and  ethics 
can  one  think  of  elaboratixig  for  unbiased  readers 
what  I  call  the  'Physics  of  Thinking'.  To  prepare 
the  ground  for  the  new  building,  one  must  first 
'clear  away  the  debris  of  ancient  notions',  that  is  'God, 
prayer,  immortality  (the  soul) ', "  The  reduction  of 
psychical  life  to  physics  is  actually  attempted  by  J. 
Pikler  in  his  treatise  "Physik  des  Seelenlebens" 
(Leipzig,  1901).  He  converses  with  a  pupil  of  the 
highest  form,  at  first  in  a  very  childish  way,  but 
finally  he&vv  guns  are  called  into  action.  "That  all 
the  various  facts,  all  the  various  phenomena  of  psychi- 
cal life,  all  the  various  states  of  consciousness  are  the 
self-preservation  of  motion,  has  not  yet,  I  think,  been 
explained  by  any  psychologist. "  Such  is  indeed  the 
case,  for,  generally  speaking,  gross  Materialism  has 
been  rejected.  Materialism  refers  psychical  phenom- 
ena to  movements  of  the  nerve  substance;  out  self- 
preservation  of  motion  is  motion,  and  consequently 
this  new  psycho-physics  is  pure  Materialism.  In  any 
case,  matter  cannot  "self-preserve"  its  motion; 
motion  persists  on  its  own  account  in  virtue  of  the  law 
of  the  conservation  of  energy.  Therefore,  according 
to  this  theory,  all  matter  ought  to  exhibit  peychiccbl 
phenomena. 

Still  more  necessary  and  simple  was  the  evolution  of 
the  world  according  to  J.  Lichtneckert  (Neue  wissen- 
schaftl.  Lebenslehre  der  Weltalls^  Leipzig,  1903).  His 
"  Ideal  Oder  Selbstzweckmaterialismus  als  die  absolute 
Philosophic  "  (Ideal  or  End-in-itself  Materialism  as  the 
Absolute  Philosophy)  offers  "  the  scientific  solution  of 
all  great  physical,  chemical,  astronomical,  theological, 
philosophical,  evolutionary,  and  physiological  world- 
riddles."  Let  us  select  a  few  ideas  from  this  new 
absolutist  philosophy.  ''That  God  and  matter  are 
absolutely  identical  notions^  was  until  to-day  un- 
known." "Hitherto  Materialism  investigated  the 
external  life  of  matter,  and  Idealism  its  internal  life. 
From  the  fusion  of  these  two  conceptions  of  life  and 
the  world,  which  since  the  earliest  times  have  walked 
their  separate  ways  and  fought  each  other,  issues  the 
present  'Absolute  Philosophy.'  Heretofore  Material- 
ism has  denied,  as  a  fundamental  error,  teleology  or 
the  striving  for  an  end,  and  hence  also  the  spiritual  or 


KATEBIUTT 


46 


KATHATHXA8 


psychical  qualities  of  matter,  while  Idealism  has  de- 
nied the  materiality  of  the  soul  or  ol  God.  Conse- 
quently, a  complete  and  harmonious  world-theorv 
could  not  be  reached.  The  Ideal  or  £nd-in-itself 
Materialism,  or  Monism,  is  the  crown  or  acme  of  all 
philosophies,  since  in  it  is  contained  the  absolute  truth, 
to  which  the  leading  intellects  of  all  times  have  ^^u- 
ally  and  laboriousT)^  contributed.  Into  it  flow  all 
philosophical  and  reugious  systems,  as  streams  intoUie 
sea."  "Spirit  or  God  is  matter,  and,  vice  versa, 
matter  is  spirit  or  God.  Blatter  is  no  raw,  lifeless 
mass,  as  was  hitherto  generallv  assiuned,  since  all 
chemico-physical  processes  are  self-purposive .  Matter, 
whi(^  is  the  eternal,  imending,  visible,  audible,  weigh- 
able,  measurable  etc.  deity,  is  gifted  with  the  highest 
evolutionary  and  transu>rming  spiritual  or  vital 
Qualities,  and  indeed  possesses  power  to  feel,  will, 
tnink,  and  remember.  All  that  exists  is  matter  or  God . 
A  non-material  being  does  not  exist.  Even  space  is 
matter  ..." 

One  needs  onlv  to  indicate  such  fruits  of  materialis- 
tic science  to  illustrate  in  their  absurdity  the  con- 
sequences of  the  pernicious  conception  of  man  and 
the  univeise  known  as  Materialism.  But  we  cite 
these  instances  also  as  a  positive  proof  that  the 
much-lauded  victory  of  modem  Ideausm  over  Mate- 
rialism has  no  foundation  in  fact.  To  our  own  time 
may  be  applied  what  the  well-known  historian  of 
Materialism,  Friedrich  Albert  Lange  (Geschichte  des 
Materialismus  u.  Kritik  seiner  Bedeutung  in  der  Ge- 
genwart),  wrote  in  1875:  "The  materialistic  strife  of 
our  day  thus  stands  before  us  as  a  serious  sign  of  the 
times.  To-day,  as  in  the  period  before  Kant  and  the 
French  Revolution,  a  general  relaxation  of  philo- 
sophical effort,  a  retrogression  of  ideas,  is  the  basic  ex- 
planation of  the  spread  of  Materialism."  What  he 
says  indeed  of  the  relaxation  of  philosophical  effort 
is  no  longer  true  to-day;  on  the  contrary,  seldom  has 
there  been  so  much  philosophising  by  the  qualified  and 
the  unoualified  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  and 
the  end  of  the  last  century.  Much  labour  hajs  been 
devoted  to  philosophy  and  much  has  been  accom- 
plished, but,  in  the  words  of  St.  Augustine,  it  is  a  case 
of  magni  ffreasus  vrceter  viam  (i.e.  long  strides  on  the 
wrong  road).  We  find  simply  philosophy  without 
ideas,  for  Positivism,  Empiricism,  Pragmatism,  Psy- 
chologism,  and  the  numerous  other  modem  systems 
are  all  enemies  of  ideas.  Even  Kant  himself,  whom 
Lange  invokes  as  the  bulwark  against  Materialism,  is 
very  appropriately  called  by  the  historian  of  Idealism, 
O.  WiUman,  "  the  lad  who  throws  stones  at  ideas  ". 

The  idea,  whose  revival  and  development,  as  Lange 
expects,  "  will  raise  mankind  to  a  new  level ",  is.  as  we 
have  shown,  not  to  be  sought  in  non-Christian  philoso- 
phy. Only  a  return  to  the  Christian  view  of  the  world, 
wmch  is  founded  on  Christian  philosophy  and  the 
teachings  of  the  Socratic  School,  can  prevent  the 
catastrophes  prophesied  by  Lange,  and  perhaps  raise 
mankind  to  a  higher  cultural  level.  This  philosophy 
offers  a  thorough  refutation  of  cosmological  and  an- 
thropological Materialism,  and  raises  up  the  true 
Idealism.  It  shows  that  matter  cannot  of  itself  be  un- 
created or  eternal,  which  indeed  may  be  deduced 
from  the  fact  that  of  itself  it  is  inert,  indifferent  to  rest 
and  to  motion.  But  it  must  be  either  at  rest  or  in 
motion  if  it  exists;  if  it  existed  of  itself,  in  virtue  of  its 
own  nature,  it  would  be  also  of  itself  in  either  of  those 
conditions.  If  it  were  of  itself  originally  in  motion,  it 
could  have  never  come  to  rest,  and  it  would  not  be 
true  that  its  nature  is  indifferent  to  rest  and  to  motion 
and  could  be  equally  well  in  either  of  the  two  condi- 
tions. With  this  simple  argument  the  fundamental 
erroi'  is  confuted.  An  exhaustive  refutation  will  be 
found  in  the  present  author's  writings:  "  Der  Kosmos  " 
(Paderbom,  1908);  "Gott  u.  die  Schdpfung"  (Ratis- 
bon.1910);  " Die Theodizee "  (4th ed  ^"""^  "^^hr- 
buch  der  Apologetik",  I  (3rd  ed  3). 


Anthropological  Materialism  is  completely  disfiroved 
by  demonstrating  for  psychical  activities  a  simple, 
spiritual  substance  distmct  from  the  bod^ — i.  e.  the 
soul.  Reason  assumes  the  existence  of  a  simple  being, 
since  a  multiplicity  of  atoms  can  possess  no  unitary,  in- 
divisible thought,  and  cannot  compare  two  ideas  or 
two  psychical  states.  That  which  niakes  the  com- 
parison must  have  simultaneously  in  itself  both  the 
states.  But  a  material  atom  cannot  have  two  differ* 
ent  conditions  simultaneously^  cannot  for  example 
simultaneously  execute  two  different  motions.  Thus, 
it  must  be  an  immaterial  being  which  makes  the  com- 
parison. The  comparison  itself,  the  perception  of  the 
identity  or  difference,  likewise  the  idea  of  necessity 
and  the  idea  of  a  pure  spirit,  are  so  abstract  and  meta- 
physical that  a  material  being  cannot  be  their  subject. 
For  a  fuU  refutation  of  anthropological  Materialism  see  Gur- 
BBRLST,  L^rbuch  der  Payeholoffie  (4th  ed.,  MOnster,  1904) ;  Idem. 
Der  Kampf  um  die  Seele  (2  vols..  2nd  ed.,  Ifainx,  1903).  Con- 
sult also  Fabrz,  Briefeaeoen  den  M.  (Stuttgart,  1864);  Prat. 
L'impuiaaanee  du  M.  (Paris.  1868);  Moxgno,  Le  M.  el  la  forct 
(2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1873);  Hbrtuno,  VAer  d,  Orenxen  d,  mechan- 
teeken  NaturerklArwng  (Bonn,  1875);  Flint,  AntiiheiMu  Tkeoriu 

i London,  1879);  Bownb,  Some  DiglcuUiea  of  M,  in  Princeton 
lev.  (1881),  pp.  344-372;  Drbbslbr,  Der  belebte  u.  der  vnbelebtf 
Stoff  (Freiburg,  1883);  Lillt,  Materiaiiam  and  Morality  in 
Fortnighay  Review  (1886),  573-04;  (1887),  276-03;  Boasu. 
RSfviation  du  maUrialiame  (Lou vain.  1890);  Dbbbbb,  D«r  Af . 
eine  Verirrung  d.  meneehliehenOeialea  (Berlin.  1892} ;  (Arrange. 
Will  M.  he  ike  Rdigion  of  the  Future  t  in  Dublin  Review  (1899), 
86-96;  CouRBBT,  Fai/liteduAf.  (Paris,  1899);  Fulijcrton,  TA/ 
Ineuffieiency  ofM.  in PaychoL Review, IX  (1902),  156-73;  Pbbch. 
Die  groeaen  WeltriUhael  {Freibuig.  1883;  3rd  ed..  1907): 
drOcKL,  Der  M.  QeprUfl  %n  aeinen  L^reQUen  u.  deren  Conee- 
quenEen  (Mains,  1878).  see  also  bibliography  under  Goo,  Socl. 
Spirttuausm,  Wori«d. 

GONBTANTIN  GlTTBERLET. 

Maternity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Feast  of 

THE,  second  Sunday  in  October. — ^The  object  of  this 
feast  is  to  commemorate  the  dignity  of  Mary  as  Mother 
of  God.  Mary  is  truly  the  Mother  of  God,  because  she 
is  the  Mother  of  Christ,  who  in  one  person  unites  the 
human  and  the  divine  nature.  This  title  was  solemnly 
ratified  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  22  June,  431 .  The 
hymns  used  in  the  office  of  tne  feast  also  allude  to  Mary's 
dignity  as  the  spiritual  Mother  of  men.  The  love  of 
Mary  for  all  mankind  was  that  of  a  mother,  for  she 
shared  all  the  feelings  of  her  Son  whose  love  for  men 
led  Him  to  die  for  our  redemption  (Hunter, ,  Dogm. 
Theol.  2,  578).  The  feast  was  first  granted,  on  the 
petition  of  King  Joseph  Manuel^  to  the  dioceses  of 
rortugal  and  to  Brazil  and  Algeria,  22  Jan.,  1751,  to- 
gether with  the  feast  of  the  Puritv  of  Mary,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  first  Sunday  in  May,  dupf.  maj.  In 
the  following  year  both  feasts  were  extended  to  the 
province  of  Venice,  1778  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  1807  to  Tuscany.  At  present  the  feast  is  not 
found  in  the  universal  calendar  of  the  church,  but 
nearly  all  diocesan  calendars  have  adopted  it.  In  the 
Roman  Breviary  the  feast  of  the  Maternity  is  com- 
memorated on  the  second,  and  the  feast  of  the 
Purity  on  the  third,  Sunday  in  October.  In  Rome,  in 
the  (Church  of  S.  Augustine,  it  is  celebrated  as  a  dupl. 
2.  dassis  with  an  octave,  in  honour  of  the  miraculous 
statue  of  the  Madonna  del  Parto  by  Sansovino.  This 
feast  is  also  the  titular  feast  of  the  Trinitarians  under 
the  invocation  of  N.  S.  de  los  Remedios.  At  Mesagna 
in  Apulia  it  is  kept  20  Feb.  in  commemoration  of  the 

earthquake,  20  Feb.  1743. 

HoLWECK,  Fatii  Mariani  (Freibuig,  1892);  Albbbs,  BUUhen-^ 
Kr&me  (Paderbom,  1894).  v  484  as. 

F.  G.  HOLWECK. 

Matemus,  Saint.    See  Eucharius,  Saint,  Bishop 
OP  Trier. 
Matemus,  Firmicus.    See  Firmicus  Materntjb. 

Mathathias,  the  name  of  ten  persons  of  the  Bible, 
variant  in  both  Hebrew  and  Greek  of  Old  Testament 
and  in  Greek  of  New  Testament;  uniform  in  Vulgate. 
The  meaning  of  the  name  is  "  gift  of  Jah",  or  "  of  Jah- 
weh"  (cf.  QtUwpot).  In  the  Hebrew,  the  first  four  of 
these  persons  are  called  Mattith  Jah  {iTTXHO) 


KATHXW  47 

(1)  Mathatidaa  (B.  6aMa0fa,  A.  HaHoHai),  one  of  of  God",  heenteredhissignatureinft  lor^booklyiog 
the  sons  of  Nebo  who  married  an  alieD  wife  (I  Esd.,  x,  on  the  table.  About  aixty  followed  his  example  that 
11)  and  later  repudiated  her;  he  is  called  BlaiitiM  in  night  and  signed  the  book.  Meetings  were  held  twice 
III  Esd.,  tx,  35.  a  week,  in  the  evenings  and  after  Ueee  on  Sundays. 

(2)  Ua-thathiab  (Sept.  HarfaMat),  one  of  the  six  The  crowds  soon  became  so  sreat  that  the  achoolhouse 
^ho  stood  at  the  right  of  Eadras  while  he  read  the  law  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  tie  Horse  Bazaar,  a  build- 
to  the  people  (II  Esd.,  viii,  4).  ing  capable  of  holdine  4000,  became  the  future  meet- 

(3)  Mathathias  (Sept.  MarflaWat),  a  Levite  of  mg-plaoe.  Here,  night  after  night,  Father  Hathew 
Corite  stock  and  eldest  son  of  Bellum;  he  had  charge  oddreBsed  crowded  assembhcs.  In  three  months  he 
of  the  frying  of  cakes  for  the  temple-worship  (I  Far.,  had  enrolled  25,000  in  Cork  alone;  in  five  months  the 
ix,  31).  number  had  increased  to  130,000.     The  movement 

(4)  Matkathiab  (Sept.  HarraWBt),  a  Levite,  one  of  now  assumed  a  new  phase.  Father  Hathew  decided 
Asapb'a  musicians  before  the  ark  (I  Par.,  xvi,  5).  to  go  forth  and  preach  his  crusade  throughout  the 

(5)  Mathathias  (I  Par.,  xv,  18,  21;  xxv,  3,  21;  land.  In  Dec,  1839,  he  went  to  Limerick  and  met 
Heb.  iri'nnO;  A.  MsTTaWai  in  first  three,  Haretat  in  with  an  cTtraordinary  triumph.  Thousands  came  in 
last;  B.  Z/itiaTaSia  in  first,  McrTaSlat  in  second,  from  the  adjoining  counties  and  from  Connsught.  In 
MaT-ToAfaiialast two),aLeviteof  thesonsof  Idithitn,  four  days  he  gave 

one  of  the  musicians  who  played  and  sung  before  the  the  pledge  to  ISO,- 

ark  on  its  entrance  into  Jerusalem,  later  the  leader  of  000,    In  the  same 

tbe  fourteenth  group  of  musicians  of  King  David.  month  he  Vent  to 

(6)  Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  iipassim;  xiv,29;  Sept.  Waterford,  where 
Marrafiiai),  the  father  of  the  five  Machabees  (see  art.  in  three  days  he 
8.  V. )  who  fought  with  the  Seleucids  for  Jewish  liberty,  enrolled  80,000. 

(7)  Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  xi,  70),  the  son  of  Abaa-  In  March,  1840,  he 
lofii  and  a  captain  in  the  army  of  Jonathan  the  Madia-  enrolled  70,000  in 
bee;  together  with  Judas  the  son  of  Calphi,  he  alone  Dublin.  In  May- 
stood  firm  by  Jonathan's  side  till  the  tide  of  liattle  nooth  College  tie 
turrud  in  the  plain  of  Asor.  reaped  a  great  bar- 

(S)   Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  xvi,  14],  a  son  of  Simon  vest,  winning  over 

the  high  priest;  he  and  his  father  and  brother  Judaa  S    professors   and 

were  murdered  by  Ptolemee,  the  son  of  Abobus,  at  250    students, 

Doch.  whilst    in    May> 

(9  and  10)  Mathathias  (Marfcdfai),  two  ancestors  nooth    itself,    and 

of  Jeaua  (Luke,  iii,  25,  26).               Waltbb  Dbuu.  the   neighbour- 
hood,   be    gained 

Math«w,  Theobald,  Apostle  of  Temperance,  b.  at  36,000  adherents. 

Thomastown  Castle,  near  Cashel,  Tipperaiy,  Ireland,  In  January,  1841, 

10  Oct..  1790;  d.  at  Queenstown,  CorV,  8  Dec.,  1856.    he  went  to  Keils, „ 

HU  father  was  James  Mathew,  a  gentleman  of  good  and  in  two  days  yAxn™  Matotw 
family ;  hi^  mother  was  Anne,  daughter  of  G^rge  and  a  half  enrolled  100,000.  Thus  in  a  few  years  he 
Wihyte  of  Cappaghwhyte.  At  twelve  he  was  sent  to  travelled  through  the  whole  of  Ireland,  and  in  Feb- 
St.  Canice's  Academy,  Kilkeimy.  There  he  spent  ruary,  1843,  was  able  to  write  to  a  friend  in  America: 
nearly  seven  years,  during  which  time  he  became  "I  have  now,  with  the  Divine  Assistance,  hoisted  the 
acquainted  with  two  Capuchin  Fathers,  whp  seem  to  banner  of  Temperance  in  almost  every  parish  in  Ire- 
have  influenced  him  deeply.    In  September,  1807,  he  land." 

went  to  Maynooth  College,  and  in  the  following  year  He  did  not  confine  himself  to  the  preaching  of  tem- 

ioined  the  Capuchin  Ohfer  in  Dublin.    Having  mode  pcrance  alone.     He  spoke  of  the  other  virtues  also, 

his  profession  and  completed  his  studies,  he  was  or-  denounced  crime  of  every  kind,  and  secret  societies  of 

dained  priest  by  Arehoishop  Murray  of  Dublin  on  every  description.    Crime  diminislied  as  his  movement 

Easter  Sunday,  1814,     His  first  mission  was  in  Kil-  spread,  and  neither  crime  nor  secret  societies  ever 

kenny,  where  he  spent  twelve  months.    He  was  then  flourished  where  total  abstinence  had  taken  toot, 

transferred  to  Cork,  where  he  spent  tweaty-four  years  He  was  of  an  eminently  practical,  as  well  as  of  a  spir- 

before  beginning  his  great  crusade  against  intemper-  itual  turn  of  mind.    Thaclteray,  who  met  him  in  Cork 

ance.    Dmingtheseyeant  he  ministered  in  the  "Little  in  1842,  wrote  of  him  thus:  "Avoiding  oU  political 

Friary  ",  and  organized  schools,  industrial  classes,  and  questions,  no  man  seems  more  eager  than  he  for  the 

benefit  societiee  at  a  time  when  there  was  no  recog-  practic^  improvement  of  this  country.     Leases  and 

niicd  system  of  Catholic  education  in  Ireland.     He  rents,  farming  improvements,  reading  societies,  music 

alsoroundedagoodlibrary,  and  was  foremost  in  every  societies — he  was  full  of  these,  and  of  hie  schemes  of 

good  work  for  the  welfare  of  the  people.    la  1830  lie  temperance  above  all."    Such  glorious  success  having 

took  a  long  lease  of  the  Botanic  Gardens  as  a  cemeteiy  attended  his  efforts  at  home,  he  now  felt  himself  free  to 

for  the  poor.    Thousands,  who  died  in  the  terrible  answer  the  earnest  invitations  of  his  feiiow-country- 

cholera  of  1S32,  owed  their  last  resting-place  as  well  men  in  Great  Britain.    Onl3  August,  1842,  he  reached 

asrelief  and  consolation  in  their  dyinshours  to  Father  Glasgow,  where  many  thousands  joined  the  move- 

Hatbew.    In  1828  he  was  appointed  Provincial  of  the  ment.     In  July,   1843,  he  arrived  in  England  and 

Capuchin  Order  in  Ireland — a  position  which  he  held  opened  his  memorable  campaign  in  Liverpool.    From 

for  twenty-three  yeare.  Liverpool  be  went  to  Manchester  and  Salford,  and. 

In  1838  came  the  crisis  of  bis  life.    Drunkenness  bad  having  visited  the  chief  towns  of  Lancashire,  he  went 

became  widespread,  and  was  the  curse  of  all  classes  in  on  to  Yorkshire,  where  be  increased  his  recruits  by 

Ireland.    Temperance  efforts  had  failed  to  cope  with  200,000.    His  next  visit  was  to  London  where  be  en- 

the  evil,  and  after  much  anxious  thought  and  prayer,  rolled  74,000.     During  three  months  in  England  he 

and  in  response  to  repeat«d  appeals  from  William  gave  the  pledge  to  600,000. 

Martin,  a  Quaker,  Father  Mathew  decided  to  inaugu-  He  then  returned  to  Cork  where  trials  awaited  him. 

rate  a  total  abstinence  movement.    On  10  April,  1^8,  In  July,  1845,  the  first  blight  destroyed  th2  potato 

tbe  first  meeting  of  the  Cork  Total  Abstinence  Society  crop,  and  in  the  following  wmter  there  was  bitter  dis- 

wos  held  in  his  own  achoolhouse.     He  presided,  de-  tress.    Father  Matlicw  was  one  of  the  first  to  warn  the 

livered  a  modest  address,  and  took  the  pledge  himself .  Government  of  tbe  calamity  which  was  impending. 

Then  with  the  historic  words, "  Here  goes  in  tbe  Name  Famine  with  all  its  horrors  reigned  throughout  the 


MATRXXIT 


48 


aCATHUSALA 


eoantry  duriDg  the  yean  1846-47.  During  those 
years,  the  Apostle  of  Temperance  showed  nimself 
more  than  ever  the  Apostle  of  Charity.  In  Cork  he 
organised  societies  for  collecting  and  distributing  food 
supplies.  He  stopped  the  building  of  his  own  cnurch, 
and  gave  the  funds  in  charitv.  He  spent  £600  ($3000) 
a  month  in  relief,  and  used,  his  influence  in  En|dand 
and  America  to  ootain  food  and  money.  Ireland  lost 
2,000,000  inhabitants  during  those  two  years.  All 
oi^ganisation  was  broken  up,  and  the  total  abstinence 
movement  received  a  severe  blow.  In  1847  Father 
Mathew  was  placed  first  on  the  list  for  the  vacant 
Bishopric  of  Cork,  but  Home  did  not  confirm  the 
choice  of  the  clergy.  In  the  early  part  of  1849,  in 
response  to  earnest  mvitations,  he  set  sail  for  America. 
He  visited  New  York,  Boston,  New  Orleans,  Washing- 
ton, Charlestown,  Mobile,  and  many  other  cities,  and 
secured  more  than  500,000  disciples.  After  a  stay  of 
two  and  a  half  years  he  returned  to  Ireland  in  Dec., 
1851.  Men  of  all  creeds  and  politics  have  borne  im- 
portant testimony  to  the  wonderful  progress  and  the 
beneficial  effects  of  the  movement  he  inaugurated.  It 
is  estimated  tiiat  he  gave  the  total  abstinence  pledge 
to  7,000,000  people,  and  everyone  admits  that  in  a 
short  time  he  accomplished  a  great  moral  revolution. 
O'Connell  characterised  it  as  "  a  mighty  miracle  ",  and 
often  declared  that  he  would  never  have  ventured  to 
hold  his  Repeal  *' monster  meetings"  were  it  not  that 
he  had  the  teetotalers  *'for  his  policemen''. 

His  remains  rest  beneath  the  cross  in  "Father 
Mathew's  Cemetery"  at  Queenstown.  On  10  Oct., 
1864,  a  fine  bronze  statue  by  Foley  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  Cork,  and  during  his  centenary  year  a 
marble  statue  was  erected  in  O'Connell  Street,'Dublin. 
The  influence  of  Father  Mathew's  movement  is  still 
felt  in  many  a  country  and  especially  in  his  own.  In 
1905  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops  of  Ireland  assem- 
bled at  Maynooth  unanimously  decided  to  request  the 
Capuchin  Fathers  to  preach  a  Temperance  Crusade 
throughout  the  country.  In  carrying  out  this  work 
their  efforts  have  been  crowned  with  singular  success. 
The  Father  Mathew  Memorial  Hall,  Dubnn,  is  a  centre 
of  social,  educative,  and  teniperance  work,  and  is 
modelled  on  the  Temperance  institute,  founded  and 
maintained  by  the  Apostle  of  Temperance  himself. 
The  Father  Mathew  Hall,  Cork,  is  domg  similar  work. 
The  Dublin  Hall  publishes  a  monthly  magazine  called 
"The  Father  Mathew  Record",  which  has  a  wide  cir- 
culation. A  special  oipinization  called  "The  Young 
Irish  Crusaders"  was  founded  in  Jan.,  1909,  and  its 
membership  is  already  over  100,000. 

Freeman* 9  Journal  (Dublin);  The  Nation  (Dublin),  oontem- 
poraiy  files;  Maouirb,  Life  o/Fr.  Mathew:  A  Biography  (Lon- 
don, 1863):  Hall,  Retrospect  of  a  Long  Life,  I  (London,  1883), 
482-n520;  Mathew.  Father  Mathew:  Hie  Life  and  Timea  (Lon- 
don, Paris,  and  Melbourne.  ?890);  Thomas,  Fr.  Theobald  Ma- 
thew— avmmarieed  Life  (Ckirk,  1902);  McCarthy,  The  Story  of 
an  Irishman  (London,  1904),  31-43;  O'Kbllt,  Beatha  an  Athar 
Tioboid  Maitiu  (Dublin,  1907),  with  English  introducUon  by 
AuoumNB;  Ttnaii ,  Father  Mathew  (London,  1908). 

Father  Augustine. 

Mathien,  FRANcois-Dissnii:,  bishop  and  cardinal, 
b.  27  Mav,  1839;  d.  26  October,  1908.  Bom  of  hum- 
ble famihr  at  Emville,  Department  of  Meurthe  and 
Moselle,  France,  he  made  nis  studies  in  the  diocesan 
school  and  thc'seminary  of  the  Diocese  of  Nancy,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1863.  He  was  engaged  succes- 
sively as  professor  in  the  school  (petit  si-minaire)  of 
Pont-drMousson,  chaplain  to  the  Dominicanesses  at 
Nancy  (1879),  and  parish  priest  of  Saint-Martin  at 
Pont-drMousson  (1890).  Meanwhile,  he  had  won  the 
Degree  of  Doctor  of  Letters  with  a  Latin  and  a  French 
thesis,  the  latter  being  honoured  with  a  prize  from  the 
French  Academy  for  two  years.  On  3  January,  1893, 
he  was  nominated  to  the  Bishopric  of  Angers,  was  pre- 
conized  on  19  January,  and  consecrated  on  20  March. 
He  succeeded  Mgr  Freppl,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
bishops  of  hia  time,  ana  set  him^' "  '  ^^in  all  his 


predecessor's  good  works.  To  these  he  added  the 
work  of  facilitating  the  education  of  poor  children 
destined  for  the  priesthood.  He  inaugurated  the 
same  pious  enterprise  in  the  Diocese  of  Toulouse,  to 
which  he  was  transferred  three  years  later  (30  May, 
1896)  by  a  formal  order  of  Leo  XIII.  In  hia  new  see 
he  laboured,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  this  pon- 
tiff, to  rally  CathoUcs  to  the  French  Government. 
With  this  ami  he  wrote  the  "  Devoir  des  cathoUques  ", 
an  episcopal  charge  which  attracted  wide  attention 
and  earned  for  him  the  pope's  congratulations.  In 
addition  he  was 
summoned  to 
Rome  to  be  a  car- 
dinal at  the  curia 
(19  June,  1899). 
Having  resigned 
the  See  of  Toulouse 
(14  December, 
1899),  his  activ- 
ities were  thence- 
forward absorbed 
in  the  work  of  the 
Roman  congrega- 
tions and  some 
diplomaUc  negoti- 
ations which  hav6 
remained  secret. 
Nevertheless,  he 
found  leisure  to 
write  on  the  Con- 
cordat of  1801  and 
the    Conclave    of      ^ 

1903.  In  1907  he  FaAHpo»-D<«B4  Cabdxkai.  Mathixu 
was   admitted   to 

the  French  Academy  with  a  discourse  which  attraeted 
much  notice.  Death  came  to  him  unexpectedly  next 
year  in  London,  whither  he  had  gone  to  assist  at  the 
£ucharistic  Congress.  Under  a  somewhat  common- 
place exterior  he  had  a  rich  and  active  nature,  an 
mquiring  and  open  mind,  a  fine  and  well-cultivated 
intelligence  which  did  credit  to  the  Sacred  College  and 
the  French  clerg^r.  His  works  include:  "De  Joannis 
abbatis  Gorziensis  vita"  (Nancy,  1878);  "L'Anden 
Regime  dans  la  Province  de  Lorraine  et  Barrois" 
rParis,  1871 ;  3rd  ed.,  1907) ;  "  Le  Concordat  de  1801 " 
(Paris,  1903) :  "  Les  demiers  jours  de  L^on  XIII  et 
le  conclave  ae  1903 "  (Paris,  1904) ;  a  new  edition  of 
his  works  began  to  appear  in  Paris,  July,  1910. 

La  Semaine  oatholisue  de  Totdouae  (1896,  IOCS);  Haxbon- 
NBUvi:,  Eloge  de  Son  eminence  le  cardinal  Mathieu  in  Reeueil  de 
VAcadimie  dee  Jeux  fioraux  (Toulouse,  1910). 

Antoine  Djegebt. 

Mathusala,  one  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  men- 
tioned in  the  book  of  Genesis  (v).  The  word  is  given 
as  Mathusale  in  I  Par.,  i,  3,  and  Luke,  iii,  37;  and  in 
the  Revised  Version  as  Methuselah.  Etymologists 
differ  with  regard  to  the  signification  of  the  name. 
Holzinger  gives  *'man  of  the  javelin"  as  the  more 
likely  meaning;  Hommel  and  manv  with  him  think 
t^t  it  means  ''man  of  Selah",  Seiah  being  derived 
from  a  Babylonian  word,  given  as  a  title  to  the  god. 
Sin;  while  Professor  Sayce  attributes  the  name  to  a 
Babylonian  word  which  is  not  imderstood.  The  au- 
thor of  Genesis  traces  the  patriarch's  descent  through 
his  father  Henoch  to  Seth,  a  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  At 
the  time  of  his  son's  birth  Henoch  was  sixty-five  years 
of  age.  When  Mathusala  had  reached  the  great  age  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  years,  he  became  the 
father  of  Lamech.  Following  this  he  lived  the  re- 
markable term  of  seven  hundred  and  eighty-two  years, 
which  makes  his  age  at  his  death  nine  himdred  and 
sixty-nine  years.  It  follows  thus  that  his  death  oc- 
curred in  ibe  year  of  the  Deluge.  There  is  no  record 
of  any  other  human  being  ha  vine  lived  as  long  as  this, 
for  which  reason  the  name,  Mathusala,  hrs  become  a 
synonym  for  longevity. 


MATILDA                             49  MATILDA 

11m  tendency  of  ratioiialists  and  advanced  critics  of  dif-  entered  Italy  he  took  Beatrice  and  her  daughter 

iSereat  creeds  leads  them  to  deny  outright  the  extraor-  Matilda  prisoners  and  had  them  brought  to  Ger- 

dinazy  details  of  the  ages  of  the  patriarchs.    Catholic  many.    Thus  the  young  coimtess  was  early  dragged 

commentators,  however^  find  no  difi^culty  in  accept-  into  the  bustle  of  these  troublous  times.     That, 

iiig  the  words  of  Genesis.    Certain  exesdies  solve  me  however,  did  not  prevent  her  receiving  an  excel- 

diificulty  to  their  own  satisfaction  by  declaring  that  lent  training;  she  was  finely  educated,  knew  Latin, 

the  year  meant  by  the  sacred  writer  is  not  the  eauiva-  and  was  very  fond  of  serious  books.    She  was  also 

lent  of  our  year.   In  the  Samaritan  text  Mathusala  was  deeply  religious,  and  even  in  her  youth  followed 

sixty-seven  at  Lamech's  birth,  and  720  at  his  death,  with  mterest  the  great  ecclesiastical  Questions  which 

JoBBPH  V.  MoLLOT.  Were  then  prominent.  Before  his  death  in  1056  Henry 

III  gave  l^ck  to  Gottfried  of  Lorraine  his  wife  and 

MatUdA,  Saint,  Queen  of  Germany,  wife  of  King  stepdaughter.  When  Matilda  grew  to  womanhood  she 

Heniy  I  (The  Fowler),  b.  at  the  Villa  of  Engem  was  married  to  her  stepbrother  Gottfried  of  Lower 

in  Westphalia,  about  895;   d.  at   Quedlinburg,  14  Lorraine,  from  whom,  however,  she  separated  in  1071. 

March,  968.    She  was  brought  up  at  we  monastery  of  He  was  murdered  in  1076;  the  marriage  was  childlesB, 

Erfurt.    Henry,  whose  marriage  to  a  ^oung  widow,  but  it  cannot  be  proved  that  it  was  never  consuni> 

named  Hathburg,  had  been  declared  mvaUd,  asked  mated,  as  many  historians  asserted.    From  1071  Ma- 

for  Bfatilda's  hand,  and  married  her  in  909  at  Wal-  tilda  entered  upon  the  government  and  administra* 

hausen,  which  he  presented  to  her  as  a  dowry.     I  latilda  tion  of  her  extensive  possessions  in  Middle  and  Upper 

became  the  mother  of:  Otto  I,  Emperor  df  Germany:  Italy.    These  domains  were  of  the  greatest  impor- 

Uemy,  Duke  of  Bavaria;  St.  Biuno^  Archbishop  ot  tance  in  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  disputes  of  that 

Cologne;  Gerberga,  who  married  Louis  IV  of  France;  time,  as  the  road  from  Germany  by  way  of  Upper 

Hedwig,  the  mother  of  Hugh  Capet.    In  912  Ma-  Italy  to  Rome  passed  through  them.    Cb  22  April, 

tilda's  husband  succeeded   his  father  as  Duke  of  1073,  Gregory  Vll  (q.  v.)  became  pope,  and  before 

Saxony,  and  in  918  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  King  long  the  great  battle  for  the  independence  of  the 

Conrad  of  Germany.  As  queen,  Matilda  was  humble.  Church  and  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  life  began.    In 

pious,  and  generous,  and  was  always  ready  to  help  the  this  contest  Matilda  was  the  fearless,  courageous,  and 

oppressed  and  unfortunate.    She  wielded  a  whole-  unswerving  ally  of  Gregory  and  his  successors, 

some  influence  over  the  king.    After  a  reign  of  seven-  Immediately  on  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  Gregory 

teen  years,  he  died  in  936.    He  beoueathed  to  her  all  entered  into  close  relations  with  Matilda  and  her 

his  possessions  in  Quedlinburg,  Poehlden,  Nordhausen,  mother.    The  letters  to  Matilda  (Beatrice  d.  1076) 

Grona,  and  Duderstadt.  give  distinct  expression  to  the  pope's  high  esteem 

It  was  the  king's  wish  that  his  eldest  son,  Otto,  and   sympathy   for  the   princess.    He    called    her 

should  succeed  him.    Matilda  wanted  her  favotuite  and  her  motbsr  "his  sisters  and  daughters  of  St. 

son  Henry  on  the  royal  throne.    On  the  plea  that  he  Peter"  (Regest.,  II,  ix),  and  wished  to  undertake  a 

was  the  first-bom  son  after  his  father  became  king,  she  Crusade  wil]a  them  to  free  the  Christians  in  the  Holy 

induced  a  few  nobles  to  cast  their  vote  for  him,  but  Land  (Reg.,  I,  xi).    Matilda  and  her  mother  were 

Otto  was  elected  and  crowned  king  on  8  August,  936.  present  at  the  Roman  Lenten  synods  of  1074  and 

Three  years  later  Henry  revolted  against  his  brother  1075,  at  which  the  pope  published  the  important 

Otto,  but,  being  imable  to  wrest  the  royal  crown  from  decrees  on  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  life.    Both 

him,  submitted,  and  unon  the  intercession  of  Ma-  mother  and  daughter  reported  to  the  pope  favourably 

tilda  was  made  Duke  of  Bavaria.    Soon,  however,  the  on  the  disposition  of  the  German  king,  Henry  IV,  and 

two  brothers  joined  in  persecuting  their  mother,  whom  on.  7  December,  1074,  Gregory  wrote  to  him,  thanking 

they  accused  of  having  impoverished  the  crown  by  her  him  for  the  friendly  reception  of  the  papal  legate,  and 

lavish  almsgiving.    To  satisfy  them,  she  renounced  for  his  intention  to  co-operate  in  the  uprooting  of 

the  possessions  the  deceased  king  had  bequeathed  to  simony  and  concubinage  from  among  the  clergy, 

her,  and  retired  to  her  villa  at  Engem  in  Westphalia.  However,  the  quarrel  between  Gregory  and  Henry  Tv 

But  afterwards,  when  misfortune  overtook  her  sons,  soon  began.    In  a  letter  to  Beatrice  and  Matilda  (11 

Matilda  was  called  back  to  the  palace,  and  both  Otto  Sept.,  1075)  the  pope  complained  of  the  inconstancy 

and  Henry  implored  her  pardon.  and  changeableness  of  the  king^  who  apparently  had 

Matilda  built  many  churches,  and  founded  or  sup-  no  desire  to  be  at  peace  with  him.  In  the  next  yeax 
ported  numerous  monasteries.  Her  chief  foundations  (1076)  Matilda's  first  husband,  Gottfried  of  Lorraine, 
were  the  monasteries  at  Quedlinburg,  Nordhausen,  was  murdered  at  Antwerp.  Gregory  wrote  to  Bishop 
Engem,  and  Poehlden.  She  spent  many  days  at  these  Hermann  of  Metz,  25  August.  1076.  that  he  did  not 
monasteries  and  was  especiallv  fond  of  Nordhausen.  yet  know  in  which  state  Matilda  "tne  faithful  hand- 
She  died  at  the  convent  of  Stc.  Servatius  and  Dionysius  maid  of  St.  Peter  "  would,  under  God 's  Ruidance^  remain, 
at  Quedlinburg,  and  was  buried  there  by  the  side  of  On  account  of  the  action  of  the  Synod  of  Worms 
her  husband.  She  was  venerated  as  a  saint  im-  against  Gregory  (1076),  the  latter  was  compeUed  to 
mediately  after  her  death.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  lay  Henry  IV  under  excommunication.  As  the  major- 
on  14  March.  ity  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  now  took  sides  against 

Two  old  Uves  of  Matilda  are  extant;  one.  VOa  animur,  the  king,  Henry  wished  to  be  reconciled  with  the  pope, 

written  in  the  monastery    f  Nprdhauaen.and  dedicated  to  the  «« j  ««Jri««.,^^*i„  *«„,.«ii,v^  ♦^  t*-i„  :^  4.u«  .^:j  jit.  ^  J 


SSS.r  (^SrSSS  or^'SSTiJS?.  Str'^JX^  ««»d  consequently  trjveUed  to  Italy  in  the  middle  of  a 

675-^82.  and  re|)rinted  in  iIiqnb.  P.  L..  CLI.  1313-26.    The  severe  Winter,  m  order  to  meet  the  pope  there  before 

,  Vifa  AfoAiOciM  noiiw,  written  by  order  of  theEmp^ror  the  latter  should  leave  Italian  soil  on  his  journey  to 

i.'^.l^S^^jte^  G^nnany.    Gregory,  who  had  already  arrivtd  in  Ix>n^^ 


other, 
Henry 

MxGlfV 


ihr  Oemahl  Beinrieh  I,  und  ihre  Sdhne  Otto  I,  Heinrich  und  bardy  when  he  heard  of  the  king's  joumey,  betook 

Brwu>  (MQBster.  1867):  AcawASM.pieheaioe  MaihiUeMenMh-  himself  at  Matilda's  advice  to  her  mountain  stronghold 

S  lES2h?IL35f&'*^    '^^  of  Canossa  for  security.    The  excommunicated  king 

"                                                    Michael  Orr.  ^^  asked  the  CJountess  Matilda,  his  mother-in-law 

Adelaide,  and  Abbot  Hugh  of  Cluny.  to  intercede  with 

MatQda  of  OanoBBa,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  daugh-  the  pope  for  him.    These  fulfilled  tne  king's  request, 

ter  and  heiress  of  the  Blarquess  Boniface  of  Tuscanv,  and  after  long  opposition  Gregoiy  permitted  Henry  to 

and  Beatrice,  daughter  of  Frederick  of  Lorraine,  o.  appear  before  him  personally  at  Canossa  and  atone  for 

1046;  d.  24  July,  1114.    In  1053  her  father  was  mur-  his  guilt  by  public  penance.    After  the  king's  depart- 

dered.    Duke  Gottfried  of  Lorraine,  an  opponent  of  ure  the  pope  set  out  for  Mantua.    For  safetv  Matilda 

the  Emperor  Henry  III,  went  to  Italy  and  married  accompanied  him  with  armed  mezi^  but  hearing  a 

the  widowed  Beatrice.    But,  in  1055,  when  Heniy  HI  rumour  that  Archbishop  Wibert  ot  Ravennaj  who 


50 

«M  mtfriendly  to  Gregory,  waa  preparing  an  ambiuh  Henry  In  1005,  but  the  ooiuiteea  reroained  nuMufan. 
forhim,  she  hrought  the  pope  back  to  Canosaa.  Here  When  the  new  German  Ling,  Henry  V,  entered  Italy 
she  drew  up  a  firatdeedol  gift,  in  wfaichshe  bequeathed  in  the  autunm  trf  1110.  Matilda  did  homage  to  him  tor 
ber  domains  and  estates  from  Ceperano  tn  Radioofani  the  imperial  fiefs.  On  ins  return  be  stopped  three  days 
to  the  Roman  Church.  But  as  long  as  sbe  lived  she  with  Uatilda  in  Tuscany,  showed  her  every  mark  of 
continued  to  govern  and  administer  them  freely  and  respect,  and  made  her  imperial  vioe-regent  of  Liguria. 
independently.  When,  soon  after,  Henry  again  re-  In  1 1 12  she  reconfirmed  the  donation  of  her  property 
oewed.the  contest  with  Gregory,  Matilda  constantly  to  the  RomanChurch  that  ahe  had  made  in  1077  (Meo. 
supported  the  pope  with  soldiers  and  money.  On  her  Germ.  Hist.:  Legum,  IV,  i,  053  sqq.).  After  her 
wcurity  the  monastery  4^  Conosaa  had  its  treasute     death  Henrv  went  to  Italy  in  1116,  and  took  Iter  lands 

.  . ^not  merely  the  imperial  fiefs,  but  also  the  freeholds. 

The  Roman  Church,  though,  put  forward  its  legitimate 
daim  to  the  inheritance.  A  lengthy  dispute  now  en- 
sued over  the  poaaesaioD  of  the  dominions  <^  Matilda, 
which  was  settled  by  a  oompromise  between  Inno- 
cent II  and  Lothair  III  in  1133.  The  emperor  and 
Duke  Henry  of  Saxony  took  Ifatilda's  freejiolds  u 
fiefs  from  the  pope  at  a  yenriv  rent  of  100  pounds  d 
silver.  The  duke  took  the  feudal  oath  to  the  pope; 
after  his  death  Matilda's  possessions  were  to  b« 
restored  wholly_  to  the  Roman  Church.  Afterwaida 
there  were  a^ain  disputes  about  these  lands,  and  in 
agreements  between  the  popes  and  emperors  of  the 
twelfth  century  this  matter  is  often  mentioned.  In 
1213  the  Emperor  Frederick  II  recognized  the  right  of 
the  Roman  Church  to  the  possessions  of  Matilda. 

DoHBO,  Vila  Malhildit.  sd.  Bethuihh  in  Mint  Orrm  HiA' 
Burial.,  XII,  34H-4m;  Vila  aha  in  Hdrjtohi.  ScriploTa  rtr 
IlaSicarvm,  V.  :i8U-;i9r:  LibrUi  <U  liu  in  M-n.  Grrm  HiX  I- 
III:  HODDT,  Malilda.  Courdrti  of  Tutcanv  (lj)ndon,  1905): 
FloHCHTINI.  JVmuru  di  Matilda,  la  irran  omfrua  di  Tonaita 
(Lueoi,  1M3:  niw  cd.,  17Se):  Tohti.  La  nmiuKi  Maiildt  o 
ficxuiit  Potttefiei  (FloreDin.  1850;  nrw  ed..  Rome,  13861- 
Rin£e,  La  aninda  llalirmr,  Malhtldt  dt  ToKant  (PaiB.  I8S9I; 
OvtKU/jtw,  Dit  BttiUimotn  dtrGrouffriifin  MaihiidevortTM^Kim 
(B«riin.  I802):HErELB.Kimnli:nvrirA>cUe.v(2Dd«l..Freibu>i 
im  Br.  ISSSi;  Metir  ton  Knohau.  JahrbUrhtr  da  dmtvAn  I 
Rfului  inlcr  Hrairirk  IV.  laid  Hrinrirh  V.  (a  vols.,  Lripiii, 
laMKlSOT):  PoiTHABT.  BibL  him.  mtd.  mri,  tnd.,  II,  148e. 

J.  P.  KmacH. 

H»tiiu.— I.  Nahc.— The  word   "Matins"  (Lat 
MataHnam  or  Matuliiia),  cornea  from  Malvla,  the 
Latin  name  for  the  Greek  goddess  LeucoUiir  or  Leueo- 
Ihea,  white  goddess,  or  goddess  of  the  morning  (Ait-      i 
mra):  Leucotheegraiut,  MatulavoeaberenotlrieiOviiiy,      i 
M5.    Hence  MabiHne,  MaiiUintu,  ifalvtinumUmput,      \ 
^  or  simply  Maljitinum,     The  word  actually  used  in  the 

Roman  Breviary  is  Matulinum  <i.  e.  lempus) ;  some  of 
melted  down,  and  seat  Gregory  seven  hundred  pounds  the  old  authors  prefer  MaiuUni  MrUtUinorum,  a 
td  silver  and  nine  pounds  of  gold  as  a  contribution  to  Malutina.  In  any  case  the  primitive  signification  of  I 
the  war  against  Henrv.  The  latter  withdrew  from  the  word  under  these  different  forms  was  Attrora,  sun-  I 
the  Romagna  to  Lomoandy  in  1082,  and  laid  waste  rise.  It  was  at  first  applied  to  the  office  of  Lauds, 
Matilda's  Wds  in  bis  march  through  Tuscany,  which,  aa  a  matter  of  fact,  was  said  at  dawn  (see 
Nevertheless  the  countess  did  pot  desist  from  her  ad-  Lauds),  its  liturgical  synonym  being  the  word  GaUi- 
herence  to  Gregory.  She  was  confirmed  in  this  by  her  cinium  (cock-^srow),  which  also  designated  this  office, 
confessor^  Anselm,  Bishop  of  Lucca.  The  night>-offica  retained  its  name  of  Vigils,  since,  aa  a 

In  similar  ways  she  supported  the  successors  of  the     rule,  Vigils  and  Matins  (Lauds)  were  combined,  the 
neat  pope  in  the  iwntest  for  the  freedom  of  theChurch.     latter  serving,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  the  closing  part  of 
When  in  1087,  shortly  after  his  coronation,  Pop^  Vic-     Vigils.     The  name  Matins  was  then  extended  to  tbs      ' 
torlllwasdnvenfromRomebythe  AntipopeWibert.     office  of  Vigils,  Matins  taking  the  name  of  Lauds,  a 
Blatilda  advanced  to  Rome  with  an  army,  occupied     term  which,  strictly  speaking,  only  designates  the  last 
tbe  Castle  of  Bant'  Angelo  and  part  of  the  city,  and    three  psalms  of  that  office,  i.  e.  the  "  laudate  "  peainia 
called  Victor  back.     However,  at  the  threats  of  the     At  the  time  when  this  cfaanf^  of  name  took  place,  the 
emperor  the  Romans  again  deserted  Victor,  so  that  he     custom  of  saying  Vipis  at  night  was  observed  scarcelj 
was  obliged  to  flee  once  more.    At  the  wish  of  Pope    anywhere  but  in  monasteries,  whilst  elsewhere  they      ' 
Urban  II  Uatilda  married  in  1080  the  young  Duke     weresoidinthemoming,  so  that  finally  it  did  not  seeoi 
Welf  of  Bavaria,  in  order  that  Uie  most  faithful  de-    »  misapplication  to  give  to  a  night  Office  a  name       i 
fender  of  the  papal  chair  might  thus  obtain  a  powerful     which,  strictlyspenking,  applied  only  to  the  office  of 
ally.     In  1090  Henry  IV  returned  to  Italy  to  attack     day-break.     The  change,  however,  was  oidy  gradwj. 
Matilda,  whomhehaaalready  deprived  of  her  estates  in     St.  Benedict  (sixth  century)  in  his  description  of  the 
Lorraine.    Holaid  waste  many  of  her  poaaessions,  con-     Divine  Office,  always  refers'to  Vigils  as  the  Nigbl       I 
guered  Mantua,  her  principal  stronghold,  by  treachery     Office,  whilst  that  of  dav-break  he  calls  Matins,  Lauds 
m  1001,  as  well  as  several  caatlee.    Although   the     beingthelast  three  psalms  <^  that  office  (Regula,  cap. 
vassals  of  the  countess  hastened  to  make  their  peace     XIII-XIV;  seeLAUoa).     The  Council  of  Tours  in  567       | 
with  the  emperor,  Matilda  again  promised  fidelity  to     had  already  applied  the  title  "  Matins"  to  the  Ni^t 
the  cause  ot  the  pope,  and  contbued  the  war,  wnich     Office:  ad MatuiinMmseiaTdipkoiuef  Laudet  MatuHna; 
now  took  a  turn  in  her  favour.     Henry'sarmywasde-     Matutini  hymni  are  also  found   m  various  ancient 
feated before Canossa.  W'"  "  '       'Wvaria,andhis     authorsassynonymouawithLauds.  (Hefele-Leclecotl 
WD  of  the  some  name,  U'  went  over  to     "Hist.deeConcilei",  V,  III,  188, 189.) 


1IATZN8 


61 


MATINS 


IT.  Obioin  (Matina  and  VigilB)  .—The  void  Vigils,  at 
first  applied  to  the  Night  Office,  also  comes  from  a 
Latin  source,  both  as  to  the  term  and  its  use,  namely, 
the  VigiHa  or  nocturnal  watches  or  |suards  of  the  sol- 
diers. The  night  from  six  o'dock  m  the  evening  to 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning  was  divided  into  four  watches 
or  vigils  of  three  hours  each,  the  first,  the  second,  the 
third,  and  the  fourth  vigil.  From  the  litufgical  point 
of  view  and  in  its  origin,  the  use  of  the  term  was  very 
vague  and  elastic.  Generally  it  designated  the  nightly 
meetings,  sytuizes.  of  the  Christians.  Under  this 
form,  the  watch  (Vigil}  might  be  said  to  date  back  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  Christianity.^  It  was  either 
on  account  of  the  secrecy  of  their  meetings^  or  because 
of  some  mystical  idea  which  made  the  middle  of  the 
night  the  hour  par  excellence  for  prayer,  in  the  words  of 
the  psalm:  media  node  sitrgebam  ad  conJUendum  tibi, 
that  the  Christians  chose  the  night  time  for  their  syn- 
axea,  and  of  all  other  nights,  preferably  the  Sabbath. 
There  is  an  allusion  to  it  in  the  Acts  of  tibe  Apostles 
(xx,  4) ,  as  also  in  the  letter  of  Pliny  the  Younger.  The 
Uturgical  services  of  these  synaxes  was  composed  of 
almost  the  same  elements  as  that  of  the  Jewish  Syna- 
gogue: readings  from  the  Books  of  the  Law,  singing  of 
psalms,  divers  prayers.  What  gave  them  a  Cbristian 
character  was  the  fact  that  they  were  followed  by 
the  Eucharistic  service,  and  that  to  the  reading  from 
the  Law,  the  Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
was  very  soon  aaded,  as  well  as  the  Gospels  and  some- 
times other  books  which  were  non-canonical,  as,  for 
example,  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Clement,  that  of  Saint 
Barnabas,  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  Peter,  etc. 

The  more  solemn  watches,  which  were  held  on  the 
anniversaries  of  martyrs  or  on  certain  feasts,  were  also 
known  by  this  title,  especially^  during  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries.  The  Vigil  in  this  case  was  also 
called  xamrvx^f,  because  the  greater  part  of  the  night 
was  devoted  to  it.  Commenced  in  the  evening,  thev 
only  terminated  the  following  morning,  and  comprised, 
in  addition  to  the  Eucharistic  Supper,  homilies,  chants, 
and  divers  offices.  These  last  Vigils  it  was  that  ^ve 
rise  to  certain  abuses,  and  they  were  finally  abolished 
in  the  Church  (see  Vigils).  Notwithstanding  this,  how- 
ever, the  Vigils,  in  their  strictest  sense  of  Divine  Office 
of  the  Night,  were  maintained  and  developed.  Among 
writers  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  century  we  fiind 
several  descriptions  of  them.  The  *'  De  Virginitate", 
a  f ourt-h-oentury  treatise,  gives  them  as  immediately 
following  Lauds.  The  author,  however,  does  not  de- 
termine the  number  of  psalms  which  had  to  ^3e  recited. 
Methodius  in  his  "Banquet  of  Virgins"  (Symposion 
give  Convivium  decern  Virginum)  sulxlividea  the  Night 
Office  or  wawrvxlt  into  watches,  but  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine what  he  meant  by  these  nocturnes.  St.  Baial 
also  gives  a  very  vague  description  of  the  Night  Office 
or  Vigils,  but  in  terms  which  permit  us  to  conclude  that 
the  p^lms  were  sung,  sometimes  by  two  choirs,  and 
sometimes  as  responses.  Cassian  gives  us  a  more  de- 
tailed account  of  the  Night  Office  of  the  fifth  centurv 
monks.  The  number  of  psalms,  which  at  first  varied. 
was  subsequently  fixed  at  twelve,  with  the  addiUon  oi 
a  lesson  from  the  Old  and  another  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment. St.  Jerome  defended  the  Vigils  against  the  at- 
tacks of  Vigilantius,  but  it  is  principally  concerning  the 
watches  at  the  Tombs  of  the  Martvrs  that  he  speaks  in 
his  treatise, "  Contra  Vigilantium '  •  Of  aU  the  descrip- 
tions the  most  complete  is  that  in  the  "  Peregrinatio 
i£theriie  ",  the  author  of  which  assisted  at  Matins  in  the 
Churches  of  Jerusalem,  where  great  solemnity  was  dis- 
played«  (For  all  these  texts,  see  Bftumer-ciron,  loc. 
cit.,  pp.  79, 122, 139. 186, 208, 246,  etc.)  Other  allu- 
sions are  to  be  found  in  CsBsanus  of  Aries,  Nicetius  or 
Nicetae  of  Treves,  and  Gregory  of  Tours  (see  B&umer- 
Biron,  loc.  cit.,  1, 216, 227, 232). 

III.  The  Elements  of  Matins  from  the  Fourth 
TO  THE  Sixth  Century. — ^In  all  the  authors  we  have 
quoted,  the  form  of  Night  Prayers  would  appear  to 


have  varied  a  great  deal.  Nevertheless  in  these  de- 
scriptions, ana  in  spite  of  certain  di£ferences,  we  find 
the  same  elements  repeated:  the  psalms  generally 
chanted  in  the  form  of  responses,  that  is  to  say  by  one 
or  more  cantors,  the  choir  repeating  one  verse,  which 
served  as  a  response,  alternately  with  the  verses  of 
psalms  which  were  sung  by  the  cantors;  readings  taken 
from  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  and  later  on, 
from  the  works  of  l^e  Fathers  and  Doctors;  litanies 
or  supplications;  prayer  for  the  divers  members  of  the 
Churcn,  clergy,  faithful,  neophytes,  and  catechumens; 
for  emperors;  travellers;  the  sick;  and  generally  for 
all  the  necessities  of  the  Church,  and  even  prayers 
for  Jews  and  for  heretics.  [B&umer,  Litanie  u.  Missal, 
in  ••Stuflmn  des  Benediktinerordens",  II  (Raigem. 
1886),  287, 289.]  It  is  quite  easy  to  find  these  essential 
elements  in  our  modem  Matins. 

IV.  Matins  in  the  Roman  and  other  Lituroie& 
, — ^In  the  modem  Roman  Liturgy,  Matins,  on  acooimt 
of  its  len^h,  the  position  it  occupies,  ana  the  matter 
of  which  it  is  composed,  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
important  office  of  the  day,  and  for  the  variety  and 
richness  of  its  elements  the  most  remarkable.  It 
commences  more  solemnly  l^n  the  other  offices,  witii 
a  psalm  (Ps.  xciv)  called  the  Invitatory,  which  is 
chanted  or  recited  in  the  form  of  a  response,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  most  ancient  custom.  The  hymns, 
which  have  been  but  tardily  admitted  into  the  Roman 
Liture^,  as  well  as  the  hymns  of  the  other  hours,  form 
part  ma  very  ancient  collection  which,  so  far  at  least 
as  some  of  them  are  concerned,  may  be  said  to  pertain 
to  the  seventh  or  even  to  the  sixth  century.  As  a  rule 
they  suggest  the  symbolic  signification  of  this  Hour 
(see  NoTy),  the  prayer  of  the  middle  of  the  night 
This  principal  form  of  the  Office  should  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Office  of  Sunday,  of  Feasts,  and  the 
ferial  or  week  day  Office.  The  Sunday  Office  is  made 
up  of  the  invitatory,  hymn,  three  noctums,  the  first 
of  which  comprises  twelve  psalms,  and  the  second  and 
third  three  psalms  each;  nine  lessons,  three  to  each 
noctum,  each  lesson  except  the  ninth  being  followed 
by  a  response;  and  finally,  the  canticle  Te  Deum, 
which  is  recited  or  sung  after  the  ninth  lesson  in- 
stead of  a  response.  The  Office  of  Feasts  is  similar 
to  that  of  Sunday,  except  that  there  are  only  three 
psalms  to  the  first  noctum  instead  of  twelve.  The 
week-day  or  ferial  office  and  that  of  simple  feasts  are 
composed  of  one  nocturn  only,  with  twelve  psalms  and 
three  lessons.  The  Office  of  tne  Dead  and  that  of  the 
three  last  da3n3  of  Holy  Week  are  simpler,  the  absolu- 
tions, benedictions,  and  invitatory  being  omitted,  at 
least  for  the  three  last  days  of  Holy  Week,  since  the 
invitatory  is  said  in  the  Offices  of  the  Dead. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  this  office  which  dis- 
tinguisn  it  from  all  the  other  offices  are  as  follows: 

W  The  Psalms  us^  at  Matins  are  made  up  of  a 
series  commencing  with  Psalm  i  and  running  without 
intermission  to  Psalm  cviii  inclusive.  The  order  of 
tiie  Psalter  is  followed  almost  without  interruption, 
except  in  the  case  of  feasts,  when  the  Psalms  are 
chosen  according  to  their  signification,  but  always 
from  tiie  series  i-cviii,  the  remaining  Psalms  being  re- 
served for  Vespers  and  the  other  Offices. 

(b)  The  Le^ns  form  a  unique  element,  and  in  the 
other  Offices  give  place  to  a  Capitulum  or  short  lea* 
son.  This  latter  has  possibl;^  been  introduced  only  for 
the  sake  of  symmetry,  and  m  its  present  form,  at  any 
rate,  gives  but  a  very  incomplete  idea  of  what  the  true 
reaaing  or  lesson  is.  The  Lessons  of  Matins  on  the 
contrary  are  readings  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term: 
thev  comprise  the  most  important  parts  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament,  extracts  from  the  works  of 
the  principal  doctors  of  the  Church,  and  legends  of 
the  martyrs  or  of  the  other  saints.  The  lessons  from 
Holy  Scripture  are  distributed  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain fixea  rules  (rubrics)  which  assign  such  or  such 
books  of  the  Bible  to  certain  seasons  of  the  year.    Is 


HATRICULA 


62 


HATTIO 


Qiis  manner  extracts  from  all  the  Books  of  the  Bible 
are  read  at  the  Office  dminff  the  year.  The  idea,  how- 
ever, of  having  the  whole  Bible  read  in  the  Office,  as 
proposed  bv  several  reformers  of  the  Breviaxy,  more 
especially  during  the  seventeenth  and  eic^teenth  cen- 
turies, has  never  been  re^rded  favourably  by  the 
Church,  which  views  the  Divine  Office  as  a  prayer  and 
not  as  an  object  of  study  for  itie  cleigy. 

(c)  The  Invitatory  and,  on  certain  aa3rs,  the  Finale 
or  Te  Deum  also  form  one  of  the  principal  character- 
istics of  this  Office. 

(d)  The  Responses,  more  numerous  in  this  Office, 
recall  the  most  ancient  form  of  psalmody;  that  of  the 
psalm  chanted  by  one  alone  and  answered  by  the 
whole  choir,  as  opposed  to  the  antiphonic  form,  which 
consists  in  two  choirs  alternately  reciting  the  psalms. 

(e)  The  division  into  three  or  two  Noctums  is  also 
a  special  feature  of  Matins,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say 
why  it  has  been  thougbt  by  some  to  be  a  souvenir  of 
the  military  watches  (there  were  not  three,  but  four, 
watches)  or  even  of  the  ancient  Vieils,  since  ordi- 
narily t^ere  was  but  one  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the 
night.  The  custom  of  rising  three  times  for  prayer 
could  only  have  been  in  vogue,  as  exceptional,  m  cer- 
tain monasteries,  or  for  some  of  the  more  solenm 
feasts  (see  Nocturns). 

(f)  In  the  Office  of  the  Chiutsh  of  Jerusalem,  of 
which  ti^e  pilgrim  ^theria  gives  us  a  description,  the 
Vigils  on  Sundays  terminate  with  the  solemn  reading 
of  the  Gospel,  in  the  Grotto  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
This  practice  of  reading  the  Gospel  has  been  preserved 
in  the  Benedictine  Liturgy.  It  is  a  matter  tor  regret 
that  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  this  custom,  so  ancient  and 
60  solemn,  is  no  longer  represented  but  by  the  Homily. 

The  Ambrosian  Lituigy,  better  perhaps  than  any 
other,  has  preserved  traces  of  the  great  Vigils  or 
vawwux^^t  with  their  complex  and  varied  £sp]ay 
of  processions,  psalmodies,  etc.  (cf.  Dom  C^n: 
"Pawographie  Musicale",  vol.  VI,  p.  8,  sq.;  Paul 
Lejay ;  Ambrosien  (rit.)  in  "Dictionnaire  d'Archtol. 
Clhr6t.  et  de  Liturgie",  vol.  I,  p.  1423  sq.).  The  same 
Liturs^  has  also  preserved  Vigils  of  long  psalmody. 
This  Nocturnal  Office  adapted  itself  at  a  later  period 
to  a  more  modem  form,  approaching  more  and  more 
closely  to  the  Roman  Litiu^.  Here  too  are  found 
the  three  Noctums,  with  Antiphon,  Psalms,  Lessons, 
and  Responses,  the  ordinary  elements  of  the  Roman 
Matins,  and  with  a  few  special  features  quite  Am- 
brosian. In  the  Benedictine  Office,  Matins,  like  the 
text  of  the  Office,  follows  the  Roman  Liturgy  quite 
closely.  The  number  of  psalms,  viz.  twelve,  is  always 
the  same,  there  being  three  or  two  Noctums  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  solemnity  of  the  particular  Office 
celebrated.  Ordinarily  there  are  four  Lessons,  fol- 
lowed by  their  responses,  to  each  Noctum.  The  two 
most  characteristic  features  of  the  Benedictine  Matins 
are:  the  Canticles  of  the  third  I^octum,  which  are  not 
found  in  the  Roman  7  iturgy,  and  the  Gospel,  which  is 
8\mg  solemnly  at  the  end,  the  latter  trait,  an  already 

E Dinted  out,  being  very  ancient.  In  the  Mozarabic 
iturgy  (q.  v.),  on  the  contrary,  Matins  are  made  upof  a 
sjrstem  of  Antiphons,  Collects,  and  Vcrsicles  which 
make  them  quite  a  departure  from  the  Roman  system. 
V.  Signification  and  Stmbousm. — ^From  the  fore- 
going it  is  clear  that  Matins  remains  the  principal  Office 
of  the  Church,  and  the  one  which,  in  its  origin,  dates 
back  the  farthest,  as  far  as  the  Apostolic  ages,  as  far 
even  as  the  very  inception  of  the  Qiurch.  It  is  dolibt- 
less,  after  having  passed  through  a  great  many  trans- 
fonnations,  the  ancient  Night  Office,  the  Office  of  the 
Vigil.  In  a  certain  sense  it  is,  perhaps,  the  Office 
which  was  primitively  the  preparation  for  the  Msob, 
that  is  to  say,  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens,  which 
presents  at  any  rate  the  same  construction  as  that 
Office: — ^the  reading  from  the  Old  Testament,  then 
the  Epistles  and  the  Acts,  and  finallv  the  Oospel — ^the 
whole  being  intermingled  with  '  ^  termi- 


nated by  the  Homily  (cf  .  Cabrol:  *'  Lea  Origines  litiir- 
giques' ,  Paris.  1906,  334  seq.).  If  for  a  time  this 
Omce  appearea  to  be  secondary  to  that  of  Lauds  or 
Morning  Office,  it  is  because  the  latter,  originally  but 
a  part  of  Matins,  drew  to  itself  the  solenmity,  prob- 
ably on  accoimt  of  the  hour  at  which  it  was  cele- 
brated, permitting  all  the  faithful  to  be  present. 
Accoraing  to  anouier  theory  suggested  by  the  testi- 
mony of  Lactantius,  St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Isidore,  the 
Christians,  being  ignorant  of  the  date  of  Christ's  com- 
ing, thouent  He  would  return  during  the  middle  of  the 
ni^t,  and  most  probably  the  night  of  Holy  Saturday 
or  Easter  Sunday,  at  or  about  the  hour  when  He  arose 
from  the  sepulchre.  Hence  the  importance  of  the 
Easter  Vigil,  which  would  tiius  have  become  the  model 
or  prototype  of  tiie  other  Saturday  Vigils,  and  inci- 
dentally or  all  the  nightly  Vigils.  The  idea  of  the 
Second  Advent  would  have  given  rise  to  the  Easter 
Vigil,  and  the  latter  to  the  office  of  the  Saturday 
VigU  (BatiffoL  "Hist,  du  Bi^viaire",  3).  The  insU- 
tution  of  the  Saturday  Vigil  would  consequently  be  as 
ancient  as  that  of  Sunday. 

BoNA«  De  Divina  Paahnodia  in  Opera  Omnia  (Antwerp. 
1677),  ^3  «q.;  Granoolas.'  CtfrnmerUariue  hietorieue  m  Rom. 
Breviar.,  100;  Probst,  Brevier  vnd  Breviergebel  (TQbincai, 
1854),  143  sq.;  BAumer.  Hittoire  du  BrMaire,  tr.  BmoN.  I 
(Pans.  1905).  60  sq.;  Di7CBi»nb,  ChrieUan  Worship  (1904). 
448,  449;  Batiitol.  Hietoire  du  Briviaire,  3  sq.;  Tbalbofer. 
Handbuch  der  Kaiholiechm  Liiwrtfik,  IL  434.  450:  Gabtocc, 
Let  Vioilea  Nodumee  (Paris.  1908)  (Gbnection  Bloud);  see 
Hours  (Cazvomicai.);  Lauda;  Vigils;  Brbviart. 

F.  Cabrou 

Matricula,  a  term  applied  in  Christian  antiquity 
(1)  to  the  catalogue  or  roll  of  the  clergy  of  a  particular 
church:  thus  Clerici  immatricuUUi  denoted  the  clergy 
entitled  to  maintenance  from  the  resources  of  the 
church  to  which  they  were  attached.  Allusions  to 
mahriada  in  this  sense  are  found  in  the  second  and 
third  canons  of  the  Coimcil  of  Agde  and  in  canon  xiii 
of  the  Ck>uncil  of  Orleans  (both  of  the  sixth  centuiy). 
This  term  was  also  applied  (2)  to  the  ecclesiastical  fist 
of  poor  pensioners  who  were  assisted  from  the  church 
revenu3s;  hence  the  names  matriciiiarit,  matrictdaria, 
by  which  persons  thus  assisted,  together  with  those 
wno  peiiormed  menial  services  about  the  church,  were 
known.  The  house  in  which  such  pensioners  were 
lod£:3d  wa:  also  known  (3)  as  rruUricula,  which  thus 
becomes  synonymous  with  xenodochium, 

Maxjbicb  M.  Hasbett. 

Matximony.    See  Mabriagb. 

Matteo  da  Siena  (I^Iatteo  di  Giovanni  di  Bas- 
TOLo),  painter,  b.  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro^  c.  1435; 
d.  1495.  His  common  appellation  was  derived  from 
his  having  worked  chiefly  m  the  city  of  Siena.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  the  masters  of  the  Sienese  school 
riVwUed  the  Florentine  painters;  in  the  fifteenth,  the 
former  school,  resisting  the  progress  achieved  at 
Florence,  allowed  itself  to  be  outstripped  by  its  rival 
Although  in  this  period  it  gives  the  unpression  of  a 
superannuated  art,  Sienese  painting  stiU  charms  with 
its  surviving  fine  traditional  qualities-^its  sincerity  of 
feeling,  the  refined  grace  of  its  figures,  its  attention  to 
minutisB  of  dress  and  of  architectural  backgroimd,  and 
its  fascinating  frankness  of  execution.  Of  these  quali- 
ties  Matteo  has  his  share,  but  he  is  fiulherroore  distin- 
guished  by  the  dignity  of  his  female  figures,  the  gra- 
cious presence  of  his  angels,  and  the  harmony  of  a 
colour  scheme  at  once  rich  and  brilliant.  For  this 
reason  critics  pronounce  him  the  best  of  the  fifteenth- 
century  Sienese  painters.  The  earliest  authentic  work 
of  Matteo  is  dated  1470,  a  Virgin  enthroned,  with  an- 
gels, painted  for  the  Servites,  and  now  in  the  Academy 
of  Siena.  In  1487  he  executed  for  the  high  altar  of 
Santa  Maria  de'  Servi  del  Borgo — the  Servite  church 
of  his  native  village^— an  "Assumption",  with  the 
Apostles  and  other  saints  looking  on;  on  tnepredella 
he  has  painted  the  history  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.     Ao> 


ICATTIO  53  ICATTIB 

eording  to  G.  Milanesi  (in  his  edition  of  Vasari,  II.  obtained  the  upper  hand,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  Ghibel- 

Florence,  1878,  p.  493,  note  3),  the  main  portion  oi  line  party  were  obliged  to  go  into  exile;  among  these 

this  painting  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  church,  while  the  was  the  poet  Dante.    In  a  famous  passage  of  the 

lateral  portions  have  been  removed  to  the  sacristy.  "Divina  Conmiedla**  (Paradiso,  XII,  124-26),  Dante 

Some  other  Madonnas  of  his  deserve  particular  men-  certainly  speaks  as  an  extreme  Ghibelline  against 

tion:  onein  the  Palazzo  Tolomei  at  Siena;  the  Virgin  Matteo  of  Aquasparta.    Matteo,  however,  had  died 

and  Infant  Jesus  painted,  in  1484,  for  the  city  palace  of  before  this.    He  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan  church 

Siena,  on  a  pilaster  in  the  hall  decorated  by  Spinello  of  Ara  Coeli,  where  his  monument  is  still  to  be  seen. 
Aretino;  in  the  duomo  of  Pienza,  a  Virgin  ana  Child        Matteo  was  a  very  learned  philosopher  and  theolo- 

enthroned  between  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Catherine,  St.  gian;  he  was  further  a  personal  pupil  of  St.  Ek)naven- 

Bartholomew  and  St.  Luke.     On  the  lunette  Matteo  ture,  whose  teaching,  in  general,  he  followed,  or  rather 

painted  the  Flagellation,  and  on  the  predella  three  me-  developed.     In  this  respect  he  was  one  of  what  is 

dallions — "Ecce  Homo'*,  the  Virgin,  and  an  Evan-  known  as  the  older  Franciscan  school,  who  preferred 

gelLst.    The  signature  reads:  **  Opus  Mathei  Johannis  August inianism  to  the  more  pronounced  Aristotclcan- 

de  Senis".    As  decoration  for  the  pavement  of  the  ism  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.    His  principal  work  is  the 

cathedral  of  Siena,  he  designed  three  subjects:  "The  acute  "QuflBstionesdisputat»",  which  treats  of  various 

Sibyl  of  Samos",  "The  Deliverance  of  Bethulia",  subjects.    Of  this  one  book  appeared  at  Quaracchi  in 

and  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents".  1903  (the  editing  and  issue  are  discontinued  for  the 

In  1477  he  painted  his  "  Madonna  della  Neve  "  (Our  present),  namely:  **  Qusstiones  disputatsB  selectsB",  in 

Lady  of  the  Snow),  for  the  church  under  that  invoca-  "Bibliotheca  Franciscana  scholastica  medii  ©vi",  I; 

tion  at  Siena.    On  comparing  this  with  the  Servite  the  "Quaestiones"  are  preceded  by  a  "Tractatus  '\e 

Madonna  of  1470,  it  is  seen  to  surpass  the  earlier  work  excellentia  S.  Scripturse"  (pp.  1-22),  also  by  a  **  Sermo 

in  beauty  of  types,  symmetry  of  proportions,  and  de  studio  S.  Scripturae"  (pp.  22-36);  it  is  followed  by 

colour-tone.  The  St.  Barbara,  a  composition  made  for  "  De  processione  Spiritus  Sancti"  (pp.  429-53).    Five 

the  church  of  San  Domenico  at  Siena,  is  also  a  remark-  "  Qusestiones  de  Cognitione ''  had  already  been  edited 

able  work:  two  angels  are  gracefully  laying  a  crown  on  in   the  collection  called  ''De  humante  cognitionis 

the  saint's  head,  while  others,  accompanied  by  St.  ratione  anecdota  qusedam"  (Quaracchi,  18^3),  87- 

MsLT}r  Magdalen  and  St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria  and  182.    The  rest  of  his  works,  still  unedited,  are  to 

playing  musical  instruments,  surround  her.    When  be  found  at  Assisi  and  Todi.     Among  them  are: 

Matteo  treats  subjects  involving  lively  action,  he  loses  "'Commentarius  in  4  libros  Sententiarum"    (auto- 

a  great  deal  of  his  power.    The  incidental  scenes  are  graph);    "Concordantiae  super  4  11.  Scntentiarum"; 

combined  in  a  confused  way,  the  expression  of  feeling  "Postilla  super  librum  Job";   "Postilla  super  Psal- 


roM.  Fr.  tr.  GtRARo'.  li  (Piria.  1892),  669.  *  Cf.  the  edition  referred  to  of  the  Qxugtt  dispui.  (19(B).  PR. 

rjAafv\M  Qi^-DTATa  V'xvit  and  De  Hum.  Coffntt.^  pp,  lav-xv:  Chronica  XX IV  M*- 

UASTON  DORTAIS.  ^.^^  General  O,  Min.  in  Analeda  Franeucana,  III  (QuRmcchi, 


1897).  40&-19.    699,   703;    Wadding.    Scriplorea    Ord.   Min, 

Matteo  of  Aquasparta,  a  celebrated  Italian  Fran-  (Rome.  1650).  262^  (1806).  172.  (igw).  269-70;  Sbaralba. 

^la^^ws     K     ««    Aniioona«>fa    in    fVio    Dir^noQA   t\f  Tn/^i  Suppl.  od  ScTxpt.  O.  M.  (Rome,  1806),  625;  Denxfle-Chatb- 

CiSCan,    b.   at    AqUMparta   in   the   JJlOCese   of    lodl,  ^^   ChaHular.  Univ.  Paris.,  li  (Paria.  1891).  59;  Ehri^  in 

Umbna,  about  1235;  d.  at  Rome,  29  October,  1302.  ZeiUchnft  far  kathol.  Theoloffie,  VII   (Innsbruck.  1883).  46; 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Bentivenghi  family,  to  which  GRABif  ann.  Die  phUoaophieche  wtd  theotooieche  Erkenntnidehre 

Cardinal  Bentivenga  (d  1290),  also  a  Franciscan  te-  X^^JSCi:!; SZliiSl^^^Hr^  ''~^'  '''^ 

loneed.   Matteo  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at  Todi.  Michael  Bihl. 
took  the  degree  of  Master  of  Theolorv  at  Paris,  ana 

taught  also  for  a  time  at  Bologna.  The  Franciscan,  Matter  (Gr.  OXiy;  Lat.  materia;  Fr.  moHkre;  Ger.  mo- 
John  Peckham,  having  become  Archbishop  of  Canter-  terie  and  atoff),  the  correlative  of  Form.  See  Htlo- 
biny  in  1279,  Matteo  was  in  1280  made  Peckham's  morphisu;  Form. 

successor  as  Lector  aacri  PcUatii  apostotici,  i.  e.  he  was  Taking  the  term  in  its  widest  sense,  matter  signifies 
appointed  reader  (teacher)  of  theology  to  the  papal  that  out  of  which  anything  is  maae  or  composed. 
Curia.  In  1287  the  chapter  held  at  Montpellier  elected  Thus  the  original  meaning  ofUXi?  (Homer)  is  * '  wood  ", 
him  general  in  succession  to  Arlotto  of  Prato.  When  in  the  sense  of  "  grove  *'  or  "  forest " ;  and  hence,  deriv- 
Giro&mo  Masci  (of  Ascoli),  who  had  previously  been  atively,  "wood  cut  down"  or  timber.  The  Latin  nui- 
eeneral  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  became  pope  as  Nicho-  teria,  as  opposed  to  lignum  (wood  used  for  fuel),  has 
ms  IV,  15  Feb.,  1288,  he  created  Matteo  cardinal  of  the  also  the  meaning  of  timber  for  building  purposes.  In 
title  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Damaso  in  May  of  that  year,  modern  languages  this  word  (as  signif^ring  raw  ma- 
Aft'Cr  this  Matteo  was  made  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Porto,  terial)  is  used  in  a  similar  way.  Matter  is  tnus  one  of 
and  pcmitentiariua  maior  (Grand  Penitentiary).  He  the  elements  of  the  becoming  and  continued  bein^  of 
still,  however,  retained  the  direction  of  the  order  until  an  artificial  product.  The  architect  employs  tmi- 
the  chapter  of  1289.  Matteo  had  summoned  this  chap-  ber  in  the  building  of  his  house;  the  shoemalcer  fash- 
ter  to  meet  at  Assisi,  but  Nicholas  IV  caused  it  to  be  ions  his  shoes  from  leather.  It  will  be  observed  that, 
held  in  his  presence  at  Rieti;  here  Raymond  Gaufredi,  as  an  intrinsic  element,  matter  connotes  composition, 
a  native  of  Provence,  was  elected  general.  As  general  and  is  most  easily  studied  in  a  consideration  of  the  na- 
of  the  order  Matteo  maintained  a  moderate,  middle  ture  of  change.  This  is  treated  ex  profesao  in  the  arti- 
course  ;  among  other  things  he  reorganized  the  cle  on  Cause  (q.  v.).  It  will,  however,  be  necessary  to 
studies  pursued  in  the  order.  In  the  quarrel  between  touch  upon  it  briefly  again  here,  since  matter  can  only 
Boniface  VIII  and  the  Colonna,  frona  1297  onwards,  be  rationally  treated  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  correlate.  The 
he  strongly  supported  the  pope,  lx>th  in  official  memo-  present  article  will  therefore  be  divided  into  para- 
rials  andin  public  sermons.  Boniface  VIII  appointed  ^aphs  giving  the  scholastic  doctrine  under  the  follow- 
him,  both  in  1297  and  1300,  to  an  important  embassy  mg  heads: — (1)  Secondary  Matter  (in  accidental 
to  Ixjmbardy,  the  Romagna,  and  to  Florence,  where  cliange);  (2)  Primordial  Matter  (in  substantial 
the  Blacks  (Neri)  and  the  Whites  [Bianchi),  that  is,  change);  (3)  The  Nature  of  Primordial  Matter;  (4) 
UiP  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  were  violently  at  issue  Privation;  (5)  Permanent  Matter;  (6)  The  Unity  of 
with  each  other.  In  1301  Matteo  returned  to  Florence,  Matter;  (7)  Matter  as  the  Principle  of  Individuation; 

(8)  The  Causality  of  Matter;  (9)  Variant  Theories. 
(1)  Secondary  Matter. — Accepting  matter  in  the  on- 


following  Charles  of  Valois,  but  neither  peace  nor 
reconciliation  was  brought  about.   The  Blacks  finally 


HATTllTCCt                           56  ItATTBKW 

abstractions practiaed  upon  the  bodies  that  fall  under  Halks,  /h  duodeeim  AHdoiau Meiaphynea  librot  (1672):  Idbv. 

the  observation  of  the  aenaes.   The  univeraal  is  imma-  Univermm  ThMiogig  Sumjiw  (Cologne.  .1622):    St.  Thoma* 

nent  in  the  individual  and  multiplied  by  i«ison  of  its  j^SS;^^^  "^^pS^^T^l^ijJSS^^.  TesSi^Sl^i^ 

matter.    In  the  system  of  Plato,  matter  (^4  0r,  drctpoy :  CreaXun*,  In  BoHhium  de  TrinUaU,  De  PHncipiis  NaturoB,  Quod- 

the  "formless  and  invisible")  is  also  the  condition  iS*^^ ^^/-?ox*'''s£*  J'"^**^  ^'^*^*^r'\ ^"""^ 

under  wWch  being  becomes  the  object  of  the  senses.  ^"S^J^^^J^rv^  teTPali.f'riS-^yl?? "c^S;^^^^^ 

It  gives  to  being  all  its  imperfections.    It  is  by  a  mix-  .  .  .  Thama  aVio  .  ,  .  Cammentariia  iUiutrtUa  ihyooa,  1562); 

ture  of  being  and  nothingness,  rather  than  by  the  g»  Wdlf.  Histoire  de  la  PhUoMphie  Mid^vaU  (Louvain); 

«A«l:.«4-;««.«    JS    «    »^^4^A««4;«1U»     ♦Uo*    a<^««a:Kl^    iu:,^^^  Farobs,  Mattere  H  Forme  en  prtaence  dee  Seteneea  modtme* 

reahzation  Of  a  potentoaUty,  that  sensible  thmgs  (Paria.  1882);  Grotk.  iimeo^te  (London,  1873):  Idem.  Ptoio 

exist.     While  for  Aristotle  matter  is  a  real  element  of  and  the  other  companume  ofSocratee  (London.  1865);  Harpeb. 

being,  for  Plato  it  is  not.   Of  Neoplatonists,  Philo  (f ol-  £{«,  ^^^P^'SK^^' ,^^' (Lo°^gP»  ^8^^?!^  J-orm.ellx. 

lowin|5  Plato  and  the  Stoics)  also  considered  matter  Sl&YliJWSo^jr^^^                SJSTiSS); 


«S8.  .        ,  ,         ,  ,  ,  hS12) ;  WxNDBLBAND.  A  Hutwy  ofPhUompki/,  tr.  Tonw  (New 

These  systems  are  mentioned  here  because  throu^  York,  1893). 
them  St.  Augustine  drew  his  knowledge  of  Greek  phi-  Francis  Aveling. 

losophy.   And  in  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  we  find  . 

the  source  of  an  important  current  of  thought  that  Matteucd,  Carlo,  physicist,  b.  at  Forli,  in  the 
ran  through  the  Middle  Ages.  He  pute  forward  at  differ-  Romagna,  21  June,  1811;  d .  at  Ardensa,  near  Leg- 
ent  times  two  views  as  to  the  nature  of  matter.  It  is  J<>™»  26  July,  1868.  He  studied  mathematics  at  the 
first,  corporeal  substance  in  a  chaotic  state;  second,  University  of  Bologna,  receivmg  his  doctorate  m  1829. 
an  dement  of  complete  indetermination,  approaching  "^^^^  ^®  '^^^^  ^  *^®  P*™  Ecole  Polytechnique  for  two 
to  the  11^  69  of  Plato.  St.  Augustine  was  not  directly  X®^"  as  a  foreign  student.  In  1831  he  returned  to 
acquainted  with  the  works  of  Aristotle,  yet  he  seems  '  O"'  ^^^  be^n  to  expenment  in  physics.  In  takmg 
to  have  approached  very  closely  to  this  thought  (prob-  "P  ^^e  Voltaic  pile  he  took  sides  agamst  Volta's  con- 
ably  throurfi  the  Latin  writings  of  the  Neoplatonists)  ^^t.  theory  of  electricity.  He  remained  at  Florence 
in  certain  passages  of  the  "Confessions'*^  (cf.  Lib.  ^^^  ^  father's  dea^  in  1834,  when  he  went  to 
XIII,  V.  and  xxxiii):  "For  the  changeableness  of  Ravenna  and  later  to  Pisa.  His  study  of  the  Voltaic 
chaigeaole  things  is  capable  of  all  those  forms  to  battery  led  hun  to  announce  the  law  that  the  decom- 
which  the  changeable  are  changed.  And  what  is  this?  position  in  the  electrolytic  cell  corresponds  to  the  work 
Is  it  soul?  Or  body?  If  it  could  be  said: 'Nothing:  developed  m  the  elements  of  the  pile.  From  the  ex- 
something  that  is  and  is  not',  that  would  I  say.".  .  .  temal  effect  it  became  possible  to  calculate  the  mate- 
"  For  from  nothing  they  were  made  by  Thee,  yet  not  "al  used  up  m  the  pile.  In  1837  he  was  invited  by  his 
of  Thee:  nOr  of  anything^ not  Thine,  or  which  was  be-  ^«?end  Buoninsegni,  president  of  the  Ravenna  Hos- 
fore,  but  of  concreated  matter,  because  Thou  didst  P^^^  *^  ^K®  charge  of  its  chemical  laboratory  and  at 
create  its  informity  without  any  interposition  of  *^®  ^™®  ^^^  assume  the  title  and  rank  of  professor 
time."  St.  Augustine  does  not  teach  the  dependence  ^^  physics  at  the  college.  There  he  did  most  excellent 
of  quantity  upon  matter;  and  he  admits  a  quasi-  '^ork  and  soon  became  famous.  Arago,  hearing  of  the 
matter  in  the  angels.  Moreover,  his  doctrine  of  the  vacancy  m  the  chair  of  physics  at  the  University  of 
raiionea  semtnalea  (of  Stoical  origm),  which  found  ?«»»  wrote  to  Humboldt  asking  him  to  recommend 
many  adherents  among  later  scholastics,  clearly  as-  Matteucci  to  the  Grand-Duke  of  Tus^ny.  This  appb- 
signs  to  matter  something  more  than  the  character  of  f^^^on  was  succe^f ul  and  there  at  Pisa  he  continued 
pure  potentiaUty  attributed  to  it  by  St.  Thomas.  It  ^l^  researches.  Beginning  with  Arago  sand  Faraday  s 
may  be  noted  that  Albert  the  Great,  the  predecessor  discovenes  he  developed  by  mgenious  expenments  our 
of  St.  Thomas,  also  taught  this  doctrine  and,  further,  knowledge  of  electro-statics,  electro^ynami<»,  in- 
was  of  the  opinion  that  the  angeUc  "  forms ''  must  be  ^^<^  currents,  and  the  like,  but  his  greatest  achieve- 
held  to  have  AfundamerUum,  or  ground  of  differentia-  ^e?^  howeverwere  m  the  field  of  electro-physiology, 
tion,  analogous  to  matter  in  corporeal  beings.  ""^J?  frogs,  torpedoes,  and  the  like. 

FoUowing  St.  Augustine,  Alexander  of  Hales  and  ^  H®  7^^  ^^^o  successful  as  a  politician  In  1848 
St.  Bonaventure,  with  the  Franciscan  School  a£  a  Commissioner  of  Tuscany  to  Charles  Albert ;  sent  to 
whole,  teach  that  matter  is  one  of  the  intrinsic  ele-  Frankfort  to  plead  the  <»use  of  his  countr>'  before  the 
ments  of  all  creatures.  Matter  and  form  together  are  German  Assembly;  1849  m  Pisa,  director  of  the  tele- 
the  principles  of  individuation  for  St.  Bonaventure.  graphs  of  Tuscany;  1859  provisional  representative  of 
Duns  Scotus  is  more  characteristicaUy  subtle  on  the  Tuscany  at  Tunn,  and  then  sent  to  Pans  with  Peruzzi 
point,  wWch  is  a  capital  one  in  his  synthesis.  Matter  and  NenCorsmi  to  plead  the  annexation  of  Piedmont ; 
is  to  be  distinguished  as:  (a)  Materia  pHrno  pnma,  the  J^,9  Inspector-General  of  the  te^graph  Imes  of  the 
universalized  indeterminate  element  of  contingent  be-  J^^^^n  Kmgdpm.  Senator  at  the  Tuscan  Assembly  m 
ings.  This  has  real  and  numerical  unity,  (b)  Materia  1848,  and  again  in  the  Italian  Senate  in  1860;  Minister 
9ecundo  prima,  united  with  "form"  and  quantified,  of  Pubhc Instruction,  1862,  m  the  cabinet  of  Rattasw 
(c)  Materia  tertio  prima,  subject  of  accidental  change  P^  won  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
in  existing  bodies.  For  Scotus,  who  acknowledges  his  ii<^°.^o?»  »?«  was  made  corresponding  member  of  t.he 
indebtedness  to  Avicebron  for  the  doctrine  (De  rerum  ^^^  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1844  He  published  a 
princip.,  Q.  viii,  a.  4),  Materia  pHmo  prima  is  homoge-  «^^  "^^^K^^  English,  French,  and  Italian  journals  of 
neous  in  att  creatures  without  exception.  His  system  science  His  larger  works  were:  "Leaiom  difisica 
is  dualistic.  Among  later  notable  scholastics  Suarez  (J^^  ^j  P^^a,  1858) ;  I««oni  sui  fenomeni  fisico- 
may  be  cited  as  attributing  an  existence  to  primordial  chimici  dei  corpi  viventi  (2nd  ed.,  Pi^,  1846) ;  Ma- 
matter.  This  is  a  logical  consequence  of  his  doctrine  ?)"?le  di  telegrafia  elettnca  (2nd  ed,  Pisa,  1851); 
that  no  real  distinction  is  to  be  admitted  between  "Coure  special  sur  1  induction  lemagn^t^^ 
essence  and  existence  (q.  v.).  God  could,  he  teaches,  *T,. '  ^^S*  z^^*"^'  Jo^  '  "^^^tT^s  sur  1  instruction 
"preserve  matter  without  a  form  as  He  can  a  foni(  publique"  (Pans,  1864);  "Traits  d^  ph6nom^nes 
without  matter"  (Disput.  Metaph.,  xv,  sec.  9).    In  his  electro-physiolo^ques  des  ammaux    (Pans,  1844). 

^.^:«;»n    «l«^    ^..««4:<;^  «»o4^4^».  .«I  i^Jl»^.  ««.«. , Bianchi,  Carlo  Matteucci  e  Vltaluz  del  euo  tempo  (Rome. 

opmion,  also,  quantified  matter  no  longer  appears  as  1874).  a^^«,  Endchpedia  ludiana  (Turin.  1882). 
the  principle  of  individuation.   A  considerable  number  William  Fox. 

of  theologians  and  philosophers  have  professed  his 

doctrine  upon  both  tnese  points.  Matthew,  Saint,  Apostle  and  Evanoelibt, — ^The 

Albbrtub  Magnus.  Opera  (Lyom,  '"'^-   ^ — 'amdbr  or  name  Matthew  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  MatUjaf 


ST.  MATTHKW 
nifiVAKKi  TOANrEBro  barbiebi  (il  gitercino),  the 


R  1- 


MATTHEW 


67 


UATTHEW 


being  shortened  to  Mattai  in  post-Biblical  Hebrew. 
In  Greek  it  is  sometimes  spelled  yiae$atos^  B  D,  and 
sometimes  Mar^aibf,  CEKL,  but  grammarians  do  not 
agree  as  to  which  oi  the  two  S|)elling8  is  the  original. 
Matthew  is  spoken  of  five  times  in  the  New  Testament; 
first  in  Matt.,  ix,  9,  when^  called  by  Jesus  to  follow 
Him,  and  then  four  times  in  the  list  of  the  Apostles, 
where  he  is  mentioned  in  the  seventh  (Luke,  vi,  15, 
and  Mark,  iii,  18),  and  a^in  in  the  eighth  place  (MAtt., 
z,  3,  and  Acts,  i,  13).  The  man  designated  in  Matt., 
ix,  9,  as  ''sitting  in  the  custom  house",  and  "named 
Matthew"  is  the  same  as  Levi,  recorded  in  Mark,  ii, 
14,  and  Luke,  v,  27,  as  "  sitting  at  the  receipt  of  cus- 
tom " .  The  account  in  the  three  Synoptics  is  identical, 
the  vocation  of  Matthew-Levi  bein^  alluded  to  in  the 
same  terms.  Hence  Levi  was  the  original  name  of  the 
man  who  was  subsequently  called  Matthew;  the 
Ma9$atbi  \eY6ftMPos  of  Matt.,  ix,  9,  would  indicate  this. 
The  fact  of  one  man  having  two  names  is  of  frequent 
occurrence'  among  the  Jews.  It  is  true  that  the  same 
person  usti^y  bears  a  Hebrew  name  such  as ''  Shaotil " 
and  a  Greek  name,  IlowXof .  However,  we  have  also 
examples  of  individuals  with  two  Hebrew  names  as, 
for  instance,  Joeeph-Caiphas,  Simon-Cephas,  etc.  It 
is  probable  that  Mattija,  "gift  of  laveh",  was  the 
name  conferred  upon  the  tax-gatherer  by  Jesus  Christ 
when  He  called  mm  to  the  Apostolate,  and  by  it  he 
was  thenceforth  known  among  his  Christian  brethren, 
Levi  being  his  original  name.  Matthew,  the  son  ot 
Alpheus  (Mark,  ii,  14)  was  a  GaUlean,  although  Euse- 
bius  informs  us  that  he  was  a  Syrian.  As  tax-gatherer 
at  Caphamaum.  he  collected  custom-duties  for  Herod 
Antipas  and,  although  a  Jew,  was  despised  by  the 
Pharisees,  who  hated  all  publicans.  When  summoned 
by  Jesus,  Biatthew  arose  and  followed  Him  and  teo^;. 
dered  Him  a  feast  in  his  house,  where  tax-gatheifera  an^ 
sinners  sat  at  table  with  Christ  and  His  disciple^.  ^«b  * 
drew  forth  a  protest  from  the  Pharisees  wnoi^  Jesus 
rebuked  in  these  consoling  words:  "  I  came  noir  to  call 
the  just,  but  sinners."  No  further  allusion  is  i|iade  .^o. 
Matthew  in  the  Gospels,  except  in  the  list  of  thf  ApcMP; . 
ties.  As  a  disciple  and  an  Apostle  he  thencef cAih  fpl- " 
lowed  Christ,  accompanying  Him  up  to  the  iimtf'of 
His  Passion  and^  in  Galilee,  was  one  of  the  wifnesses'" 
of  His  Resurrection.  He  was  also  amongst  the  Apos- 
tles who  were  present  at  the  Ascension,  and  afterwards 
withdrew  to  an  upper  chamber,  in  Jerusalem,  praying 
in  union  with  Mary,  the  Mother  of  Jesus,  and  with  his 
brethren  (Acts,  i,  10  and  14). 

Of  Matthew's  subsequent  career  we  have  only  inac- 
curate or  legendary  data.  St.  Irenseus  tells  us  that 
Matthew  preached  the  Gospel  among  the  Hebrews, 
St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  claiming  that  he  did  this  for 
fifteen  years,  and  Eusebius  maintains  that,  before  go- 
ing into  other  countries,  he  gave  them  his  Gospel  in 
the  mother  tongue.  Ancient  writers  are  not  as  one  as 
to  the  countries  evangeb'zed  by  Matthew,  but  almost 
all  mention  Ethiopia  to  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
(not  Ethiopia  in  Atrica),  and  some  Persia  and  the  king- 
dom of  the  Parthians,  Macedonia,  and  Syria.  Accord- 
ing to  Heracleon,  who  b  quoted  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
ax^ria,  Matthew  did  not  die  a  martyr,  but  this  opinion 
conflicts  with  all  other  ancient  testimony.  Let  us  add, 
however,  that  the  account  of  his  martyrdom  in  the 
apocryphal  Greek  writings  entitled  "Martyrium  S. 
Matthsei  in  Ponto"  and  published  by  Bonnet,  "Acta 
apostolorum  apocrypha"  (Leipzig,  1898),  is  absolutely 
devoid  of  historic  value.  Lipsius  holds  that  this 
"  Martjrriuih  S.  Matthiei ",  which  contains  traces  of  ' 
Gnosticism,  must  have  been  published  in  the  third 
century.  There  is  a  disagreement  as  to  the  place  of 
St.  Matthew's  martyrdom  and  the  kind  of  torture 
inflicted  on  him,  therefore  it  is  not  known  whether 
he  was  burned,  stoned,  or  beheaded.  The  Roman 
Martyrology  simply  says:  "S.  Matthaei,  qui  in  JSthio- 
pia  preedicans  martyrium  passusest".  Various  writ- 
\Hip  that  %r^  qgw  OQ09id«red  apocryphal,  have  been 


attributed  to  St.  Matthew.  In  the  "  Evangelia  apo- 
crypha" (Leipzig,  1876),  Tisohendorf  reproducea  a 
Latm  document  entitled:  "De  Grtu  beats  Marise  et 
infantia  Salvatoris",  supposedly  written  in  Hebrew 
by  St.  Matthew  the  Evangelist,  and  translated  into 
Latin  by  Jerome,  the  priest.  It  is  an  abridged  adapta- 
tion of  the  "  Protoevangelium  "  of  St.  James,  which  was 
a  Greek  apocryphal  of  the  second  century.  This 
pseudo-Matthew  dates  from  the  middle  or  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century,  and  M.  Aman  has  just  given  us  a 
new  edition  of  it:  "Le  Prot^vangile  de  Jacques  et 
ses  remaniements  latins"  (Paris,  1910).  The  Latin 
Church  celebrates  the  feast  of  St.  Matthew  on  21 
September,  and  the  Greek  Chureh  on  16  November. 
St.  Matthew  is  represented  under  the  symbol  of  a 
winged  man,  carrying  in  his  hand  a  lance  as  a  char- 
acteristic emblem. 

£.  Jacquieb. 

Matthew,  Saint,  Gospel  of. — ^I.  CANONicrrr. — 
The  earliest  Christian  communities  looked  upon  the 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  Sacred  Scripture,  and 
read  them  at  their  religious  assemblies.  That  the  (jros- 
pels,  which  contained  tne  words  of  Christ  and  the  nar- 
rative of  His  life,  soon  enjoyed  the  same  authority  as 
the  Old  Testament,  is  made  clear  by  Hegesippus 
(Eusebius,  "  Hist,  eccl.",  IV,  xxii,  3),  who  tells  us  that 
in  every  city  the  Christians  were  faithful  to  the  teach- 
ings of  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  Lord.  A  book 
was  acknowledged  as  canonical  when  the  Church  re- 
garded it  as  Apostolic,  and  had  it  read  at  her  assem- 
blies. Hence,  to  establish  the  canonicity  of  the  Gos- 
pel according  to  St.  Matthew,  we  must  investigate 
primitive"  ClfffStlAn  tradition  for  the  use  that  was 
!m^6*i>f  ^Is  document,  and  for  indications  proving 
.  ihfit,  itjWaaj^arled  as  Scripture  in  the  same  manner 
'  to)the  Jtobtis  o9  t^e  Old  Testament. 

The  first  traceslthat  we  find  of  it  are  not  indubitable, 
because  post-Apcptolic  writers  quoted  the  texts  with  a 
:  eettaiji  frecdoni,  |md  principally  because  it  is  difficult 
,to  say^w^jLher  the  passages  thus  quoted  were  taken 
from  oral  'trii^lt^on  or  from  a  written  Gospel.  The 
first  Christid(h  document  whose  date  can  be  fixed  with 
compaWflWTwrfainty  (96-98),  is  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Clement  to  the  Corinthians.  It  contains  sayings  of 
the  Lord  which  closely  resemble  those  recorded  in  the 
First  Gospel  (Clement,  xvi,  17=Matt.,  xi,  29;  Clem., 
xxiv,  6=Matt.,  xiii,  3),  but  it  is  possible  that  they  are 
derived  from  Apostolic  preaching,  as,  in  chapter  xiii, 
2,  we  find  a  mixture  of  sentences  from  Matthew,  Luke, 
and  an  unknown  source.  Again,  we  note  a  similar 
commingling  of  E  van^lical  texts  elsewhere  in  the  same 
Epistle  of  Clement,  in  the  Doctrine  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp,  and  in  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  Whether  these  texts  were  thus  combined 
in  oral  tradition  or  emanated  from  a  collection  of 
Christ's  utterances,  we  are  unable  to  say. — ^The  Epistles 
of  St.  Ignatius  (martyred  110-17)  contain  no  literal 
(quotation  from  the  Holy  Books;  nevertheless,  St.  Igna- 
tius borrowed  expressions  and  some  sentences  from 
Matthew  ("Ad  Polyc",  ii,  2=Matt.,  x,  16;  "Eph.", 
xiv,  2=Matt.,  xii,  33,  etc.).  In  his  "Epistle  to  the 
Philadelphians"  (v,  12),  he  speaks  of  the  Gospel  in 
which  he  takes  refuge  as  in  the  Flesh  of  Jesus;  conse- 
quently, he  had  an  Evangelical  collection  which  he  re- 
garded as  Sacred  Writ,  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  formed  part  of  it. — In  the  Epis- 
tle of  St.  Polycarp  (110-17),  we  find  various  passages 
from  St.  Matthew  quoted  literally  (xii,  3=Matt.,  v,44; 
vii,  2=Matt.,  xxvi,  41,  etc.). — ^The  Doctrine  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  contains  sixty-six  passages  that  recall 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew;  some  of  them  are  literal  quota- 
tions (viii,  2=Matt.,  vi,  7-13;  vii,  l=Matt.,  xxviii,  19; 
xi,  7=Matt.,  xii,  31,  etc.). — In  the  so-called  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  (117-30),  we  find  a  passage  from  St.  Mat- 
thew (xxii,  14).  introduced  by  the  scriptural  formula. 
^9  yiyparrm^  woich  proves  that  the  authpr  C9n9id?reg 


58 


the  Gospel  of  Matthew  equal  in  point  of  authority  to 
the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament. — ^The  "Shepherd 
of  Hennas"  has  several  passages  whieh  bear  close  re- 
semblance to  passages  of  Matthew,  but  not  a  single 
literal  Quotation  from  it. — In  his  ''Dialogue"  (zcix, 
8),  St.  Justin  quotes,  almost  literallv,  the  prayer  of 
Christ  in  the  Garden  of  Olives,  in  Matthew,  xxvi,  39, 40. 

A  great  number  of  passages  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Justin  recall  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  prove  that  he 
ranked  it  among  the  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles  which,  he 
said,  were  calkS  Gospels  (I  Apol.,  Ixvi),  were  read  in 
the  services  of  the  Church  (ibid.,  Ixvii),  and  were  con- 
sequent!]^ regarded  as  Scripture. — In  his  "  L^atio  pro 
chnstianis",  xii,  11,  Athenagoras  (117)  quotes  almost 
literally  sentences  taken  from  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  (Matt.,  v,  44). — ^Theophilus  of  Antioch  (Ad 
Autol.,  Ill,  xiii-xiv)  quotes  a  passage  from  Matthew 
(v,  28,  32),  and,  according  to  St.  .^rome  (In  Matt. 
Prol.),  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew.— We  find  in  the  Testaments  of  tne  Twelve  Pa- 
triarchs— drawn  up,  according  to  some  critics,  about 
the  middle  of  the  second  century — numerous  passages 
that  closely  resemble  the  Gkwpel  of  Matthew  (Test. 
Gad,  V,  3;  vi,  6;  v,  7=Matt.,  zviii,  15, 35;  Test.  Joe.,  i, 
5,  6=Matt.,  zxv,  35,  36,  etc.),  but  Dr.  Charles  main- 
tains that  the  Testaments  were  written  in  Hebrew  in 
the  first  century  before  Jesus  Christ,  and  translated 
into  Greek  towards  the  middle  of  the  same  century.  In 
this  event,  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  would  depend  upon 
the  Testaments  ana  not  the  Testaments  upon  the  (jos- 
pel.  The  question  is  not  yet  settled,  but  it  seems  to 
us  that  there  is  a  gmter  probability  that  the  Testa- 
ments, at  least  in  tneir  Greek  version,  are  of  later  date 
than  ike  Gosi)el  of  Matthew;  ihey  certainly  received 
numerous  Christian  additions. — ^llie  Greek  text  of  the 
Clementine  Homilies  contains  some  quotations  from 
Matthew  (Hom.  iii,  52= Matt.,  xv,  13);  in  Hom. 
xviii,  15,  the  quotation  from  Matt.,  xiii,  35,  is  literaL — 
Passages  which  suggest  the  (jospel  of  Matthew  might 
be  quoted  from  heretical  writings  of  the  second  cen- 
tury and  from  apocryphal  gospels — ^the  Gospel  of 
Peter,  the  Protoevangeuum  of  James,  etc.,  in  which 
the  narratives,  to  a  considerable  extent,  are  derived 
from  the  Gospel  of  Matthew. — ^Tatian  incorporated 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew  in  his  "  Diatesseron";  we  shall 
quote  below  the  testimonie^of  Papias  and  St.  Irenseus. 
For  the  latter,  the  (jospel  of  Matthew,  from  which  he 
quotes  nimierous  passages,  was  one  of  the  four  that 
constituted  the  quadriiorm  Gospel  dominated  by  a 
single  spirit. — ^Tertullian  (Adv.  Marc.,  IV,  ii)  asserts, 
that  the  *' Instrumentum  evan^iicum"  was  com- 
posed by  the  Apostles,  and  mentions  Matthew  as  the 
author  of  a  Gospel  (Die  came  Christi,  xii).— Clement 
of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  Ill,  xiii)  speaks  of  the  four 
Gospels  that  have  been  transmitted,  and  Quotes  over 
three  himdred  passages  from  the  Ckispel  ot  Matthew, 
which  he  introduces  by  the  formula,  iw  M  rf  jmrd 
MoMoibr  cAbtyc^^'  or  by  ^>nfflp  6  K&ptot, 

It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  our  inquiry  further. 
About  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  the  Gospel  of 
Mattl^w  was  received  by  the  whole  Christian  Church 
as  a  Divinely  inspired  docimient,  and  consequently  as 
canonical.  The  testimony  of  Origen  C'ln  Matt.", 
quoted  by  Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  III.  xxv.  4),  of 
£)usebius  (op.  cit.,  Ill,  xxiv,  5;  xxv,  1),  ana  of  St. 
Jerome  ("De  Viris  111.*',  iii,  "Prolog,  in  Matt.")  are 
explicit  in  this  respect.  It  might  be  added  that  this 
Grospel  is  found  m  the  most  ancient  versions:  Old 
Latm,  Syriac,  and  Egyptian.  Finally,  it  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Canon 
of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (363)  and  in  that  of  St. 
Athanasius  (326-73),  and  very  probably  it  was  in  the 
last  part  of  the  Muratorian  Canon.  Furthermore,  the 
canonicity  of  the  Grospel  of  St.  Matthew  is  accepted  by 
the  entire  Christian  world. 

II.   AUTHBNnCITT    OF    THB     FiBflT    GOBPBL. — ITm 

question  of  wtbentioity  aa^umes  an  altogether  special 


aspect  in  regard  to  the  First  GospeL  The  early  Chris- 
tian writers  assert  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  a  Gospel  in 
Hsbrew;  this  Hebrew  Gospel  has,  however,  entirely 
disappeared,  and  the  Go^)el  which  we  have,  and  from 
which  eodenastical  writers  borrow  quotations  as  com- 
ing from  the  Goqwl  of  Matthew,  is  in  Greek.  What 
connexion  is  there  between  this  Hebrew  Gospel  and 
this  Greek  Gospel,  both  of  which  tradition  ascribes  to 
St.  Matthew?  Such  is  the  problem  that  presents  itself 
for  solution.    Let  us  first  examine  the  (acts. 

A.  TesHmony  of  TradUion. — ^According  to  Eusebius 
(Hist.  eccL.  HI,  xxxix,  16),  Papias  said  that  Matthew 
collected  (rv9€Td(aTo;  or,  according  to  two  manu- 
scripts, ^vvrypd^aro,  composed)  r&  \6yuL  (the  oracles 
or  maxims  of  Jesus)  in  the  Hebrew  (Aramaic)  lan- 
guage, and  that  each  one  translated  them  as  best  he 
could. 

Three  questions  arise  in  regard  to  this  testimony  of 
Papias  on  Matthew:  (1)  What  does  the  word  Xbyia 
si^iify?  Does  it  mean  only  detached  sentences  or 
sentences  incorporated  in  a  narrative,  that  is  to  say. 
a  (joi^l  such  as  that  of  St.  Matthew?  Among  classical 
writera,  \6y»w,  the  diminutive  of  X^ot,  signifies  the 
"answer  of  oracles",  a  "prophecy";  in  the  Septus- 
idnt  and  in  Philo,  "  oracles  of  God  "  (rd  Hn  X^ia,  the 
Ten  Commandments).  It  sometimes  has  a  broader 
meaning  and  seems  to  include  both  facts  and  sayings. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  significatitxi  of  the  word 
X^cor  is  doubtful,  and  if,  strictly  speaking,  it  may  be 
daimed  to  indicate  teachings  and  narratives,  the 
meaning  "oracles"  is  the  more  natural.  However, 
writero  contemporary  with  Papias — e.  g.  St.  Clement 
of  Rome  (Ad  Cor.,  liu),  St.  Irensus  (Adv.  Hsr.,  I,  viii. 
2),  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  cccxcii),  and 
Origen  (I>e  Prindp.,  IV,  xi) — have  used  it  to  designate 
facts  and  sayings.  The  work  of  Papias  was  entitled 
"  Exposition  of  the  Oracles  [Xo7(My]  ot  the  Lord  ",  and 
it  also  contained  narratives  (Eusebius,  "  Hist,  eod.", 
Ill,  xxxix,  9).  On  the  other  hand,  speaking  of  the 
Gospel  of  Mark,  Papias  says  that  tnis  Evangelist 
wrote  all  that  Cfajtist  had  said  and  done,  but  adds  that 
he  established  no  connexion  between  the  Lord's  say- 
ings Mrra^i9  rwr  Kvptax&w  "SoyiMp).  We  may  believ'e 
that  nere  Xoyltfp  comprises  all  that  Christ  said  and  did. 
Nevertheless,  it  would  seem  that,  if  the  two  passages 
on  Mark  and  Matthew  followed  each  other  in  Papias  as 
in  Eusebius,  the  author  intended  to  emphasise  a  differ- 
ence between  them,  by  implying  that  Mark  recorded 
the  Lord's  words  and  deeds  and  Matthew  chronicled 
His  discourses.  The  question  is  still  unsolved;  it  is, 
however,  possible  that,  in  Papias,  the  term  Xiyta 
means  deeds  and  teachm^. 

(2)  Second,  does  Papias  refer  to  oral  or  written 
translations  of  Matthew,  when  he  says  that  each  one 
transbited  the  sayings  "as  best  he  could"?  As  there 
is  nowhere  any  allusion  to  numerous  Greek  transla- 
tions of  the  Logia  of  Matthew,  it  is  probable  that 
Papias  speaks  here  of  the  oral  translations  made  at 
Christian  meetings,  similar  to  the  extemporaneous 
translations  of  the  Old  Testament  made  in  the  syna- 
gogues. This  would  explain  why  Papias  mentions 
that  each  one  (each  reader)  translated  "as  best  he 
could". 

(3)  Finally,  were  the  Logia  of  Matthew  and  the 
Gospel  to  which  ecclesiastical  writers  refer  written  in 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic?  Both  hypotheses  are  held. 
Papias  says  that  Matthew  wrote  the  Logia  in  the 
Hebrew  (^fipatSi)  language;  St.  Irenaeus  and  Eusebius 
maintain  that  he  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  Hebrews  in 
their  national  language,  and  the  same  assertion  is 
found  in  several  writers.  Matthew  would,  therefore, 
seem  to  have  written  in  modernised  Hebrew,  the  lan- 
guage then  used  by  the  scribes  for  teaching.  But,  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  national  language  of  the  Jews 
was  Aramaic,  and  when,  in  the  New  Testament,  there 
is  mention  of  the  Hebrew  language  (ifipatt  dcdXcjrrot). 

it  19  Ar»a)aic  th»t  iff  implied.    Hence,  the  irfor^oaia 


liATTHKW 


59 


HATTHIW 


writen  may  aDude  to  the  Aramaic  and  not  to  the 
Hebrew.  Besides,  as  thev  assert,  the  Apostle  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  to  help  popular  teaching.  To  be 
understood  by  his  readers  who  spoke  Aramaic,  he 
would  have  had  to  reproduce  the  original  catechesis 
in  this  language,  and  it  cannot  be  imagined  why*,  or 
for  whom,  he  should  have  taken  the  trouble  to  write  it 
in  Hebrew,  when  it  would  have  had  to  be  translated 
thenoe  into  Aramaic  for  use  in  religious  services. 
Moreover,  Eusebius  (Hist.  eccL,  III,  xxiv,  6)  tells  us 
that  the  Ga^)el  of  Matthew  was  a  reproduction  of  his 
preaching^  and  this,  we  know,  was  in  Aramaic.  An 
investigation  of  the  Semitic  idioms  observed  in  the 
Gospel  does  not  {)ermit  us  to  conclude  as  to  whether 
the  originai  was  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  as  the  two 
languages  are  so  closely  related.  Besides,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  greater  part  of  these  Semitisms 
simply  reproduce  collo<)uial  Greek  and  are  not  of 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic  origin.  However,  we  believe  the 
second  hypothesis  to  be  the  more  prooable,  viis.,  that 
Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Aramaic. 

Let  us  now  recall  the  testimonv  of  the  other  eccle- 
siastical writera  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  St. 
Irensus  (Adv.  Hser.,  IIL  i,  2)  affirms  that  Matthew 
published  among  the  Hebrews  a  Gospel  which  he 
wrote  in  their  own  language.  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  V. 
X,  3)  says  that,  in  India,  Pantsenus  foimd  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  Matthew  written  in  the  Hebrew  Ian- 
gua^,  the  Apostle  Bartholomew  having  left  it  there. 
Again,  in  his  "Hist,  eccl."  (VT.  xxv,  3,  4),  Eusebius 
tells  us  that  Grigen,  in  his  first  book  on  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew,  states  that  he  has  learned  from  tradition 
that  the  First  Gospel  was  written  by  Matthew,  who, 
having  composed  it  in  Hebrew,  published  it  for  the 
converts  from  Judaism.  According  to  Eusebius  (Hist. 
eccl.,  Ill,  xxiv,  6),  Matthew  preached  first  to  the 
Hebrews  and^  when  obliged  to  ^o  to  other  countries, 

fave  them  his  Gospel  written  m  his  native  tongue, 
t.  Jerome  has  repeatedly  declared  that  Matthew  wrote 
his  Gospel  in  Hebrew  ^*'Ad  Damasum",  xx;  "Ad 
Hedib.  ,  iv),  but  says  tnat  it  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty who  trandated  it  into  Greek.  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Epiphanius,  St. 
John  Chrysostom,  St.  Augustine,  etc.,  and  all  the  com- 
mentators of  the  Middle  Ages  repeat  that  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew.  Erasmus  was  the  first  to 
express  doubts  on  this  subject:  "It  does  not  seem 
probable  to  me  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  since 
no  one  testifies  that  he  has  seen  any  trace  of  such  a 
volume."  This  is  not  accurate,  as  St.  Jerome  uses 
Matthew's  Hebrew  text  several  times  to  solve  diffi- 
culties of  interpretation,  which  proves  that  he  had  it 
at  hand.  Pantsenus  also  had  it,  as,  according  to  St. 
Jerome  ("De  Viris  111.",  xxxvi),  ne  brought  it  back  to 
Alexandria.  However,  the  testimony  of  Pantsenus  is 
onlv  second-hand,  and  that  of  Jerome  remains  rather 
ambiguous,  since  m  neither  case  is  it  positively  known 
that  the  writer  did  not  mistake  the  Gospel  according 
to  the  Hebrews  (written  of  course  in  Hebrew)  for  the 
Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  However,  all  eccle- 
siastical writers  assert  that  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel 
in  Hebrew,  and,  by  quoting  the  Greek  Gospel  and 
ascribing  it  to  Matthew,  thereby  affirm  it  to  be  a  trans- 
lation oi  the  Hebrew  Gospel. 

B.  Examinatum  of  the  Greek  Goapd  of  St,  Matthew, — 
Our  chief  object  is  to  ascertain  whether  the  character- 
istics of  the  Greek  Gospel  indicate  that  it  is  a  trans- 
lation from  the  Aramaic,  or  that  it  is  an  original 
document;  but,  that  we  may  not  have  to  revert  to  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew^  we  shall  here 
treat  them  in  fuU. 

(1)  The  Language  of  the  Gospel. — St.  Matthew  used 
about  1475  words,  137  of  which  are  «iro|  'Keydfupa 
(woids  used  bv  him  alone  of  all  the  New  Testament 
writers).  Of  tnese  latter  76  are  classical;  21  are  found 
in  the  Septuagint;  15  (/SorToX©7€ir,  fiuurr-fft,  eOpovxli^iPt 
etc.)  were  introduced  for  the  first  time  by  Matthew,  or 


at  least  he  was  the  first  writer  in  whom  they  were  dis- 
covered; 8  words  (d4ke9p*&¥,  ya/d^nw,  etc.)  were  em- 
ployed for  the  first  time  by  Matthew  and  Mark,  and  15 
others  (ixx^peaBaif  hriadaios  etc.)  b^  Matthew  and 
another  New  Testament  writer.  It  is  probable  that, 
at  the  time  of  the  Evangelist,  all  these  words  were  in 
current  use.  Matthew's  Gospel  contains  many  pecul* 
iar  expressions  which  help  to  give  decided  colour  to 
his  style.  Thus,  he  employs  thirty-four  times  the 
expression  ^aaiX€ia  tQv  o^papQp;  this  is  never  found 
in  Mark  and  Luke,  who,  in  parallel  passages,  replace  it 
b  V  fiofft^Mla  Tm>  6€odf  whicn  also  occura  four  times  in 
Matthew.  We  must  likewise  note  the  expressions: 
6  war^p  6  iwovpdptot^  6  iv  rott  odpapoit,  vvvrfKitUL  rod 
alQvotf  irvvalpup  XbyoPf  elvttp  r«  icard  tcpoi.  /lixP^  ^^ 
ff'^fupovj  roiijceu  ^t,  Aawtp^  ip  ixttptf  rf  jcatpy,  4yelpea6at 
dr6f  etc.  The  same  terms  often  recur:  r6T€  (90  times), 
dwb  rSre,  ital  l5o6  etc.  He  adopts  the  Greek  form 
'lflpoff6\vfUL  for  Jerusalem,  and  not  'IiypotwdXi^M,  which 
he  uses  but  once.  He  has  a  predilection  for  the  prepo- 
sition dr6,  using  it  even  when  Mark  and  Luke  use  ix, 
and  for  the  expression  vl6s  Aavt9,  Moreover,  Matthew 
is  fond  of  repeating  a  p)irase  or  a  special  construction 
several  times  within  quite  a  short  interval  (cf.  ii, 
1,  13,  and  19;  iv,  12,  18,  and  v,  2;  viii,  2-3  and  28; 
ix,  26  and  31;  xiii,  44,  45,  and  47,  etc.).  Quotations 
from  the  Old  Testament  are  variously  introduced,  as: 
otran,  jca^r  y&ypawrai,  fmi,  or  Swus,  rXnipta&y  rb  ^ifB^p 
inrh  Kvplov  Btk  roO  wpQ^ijTov^  etc.  These  peculiarities 
of  language,  especially  the  repetition  oif  the  same 
words  and  expressions,  would  indicate  that  the  Greek 
Gospel  was  an  original  rather  than  a  translation,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  paronomasia  (parrol^ttp, 
woKvXoylai  Kinpovrai  koI  tf^orrai,  etc.),  which  ought  not 
to  have  oeen  found  in  the  Aramaic,  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  genitive  absolute,  and,  above  all,  by  the 
linking  of  clauses  through  the  use  of  m^v  .  .  .  S^,  a 
construction  that  is  peculiarly  Greek.  However,  let 
us  observe  that  these  various  characteristics  prove 
merelv  that  the  writer  was  thoroughly  conversant 
with  ms  language,  and  that  he  translated  his  text 
rather  freely.  Besides,  these  same  characteristics  are 
noticeable  in. Christ's  sayings,  as  well  as  in  the  nam^ 
tives,  and,  as  these  utterances  were  made  in  Aramaic, 
they  were  consequently  translated ;  thus,  the  const^o- 
tion  iUp  ,  .  ,  hi  (except  in  one  instance)  and  all  the 
examples  of  paronomasia  occur  in  discourses  of  Christ. 
The  fact  that  the  ^nitive  absolute  is  used  mainly  in 
the  narrative  portions,  only  denotes  that  the  latter 
were  more  freely  translated;  besides,  Hebrew  pos- 
sesses an  analogous  grammatical  construction.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  fair  number  of  Hebraisms  are  noticed 
in  Matthew's  Gospel  (o6ir  iylptacxtp  a^ifp,  6tto\oy^ei 
ip  ifutl,  €l  l$M>rir,  tI  ijfjLtp  ical  ecol,  etc.),  which  favour 
the  belief  that  the  original  was  Aramaic.  Still,  it 
remains  to  be  proved  that  these  Hebraisms  are  not 
colloquial  Greek  expressions. 

(2)  General  Character  of  the  Gospel. — ^Distinct 
unity  of  plan,  an  artificial  arrangement  of  subject- 
matter,  and  a  simple,  easy  style — ^much  purer  than 
that  of  Mark — suggest  an  original  rather  than  a  trans- 
lation. When  the  First  Gospel  is  compared  with 
books  translated  from  the  Heorew,  such  as  those  of 
the  Septuagint,  a  marked  difference  is  at  once  appax^ 
ent.  The  original  Hebrew  shines  through  every  line 
of  the  latter,  whereas,  in  the  First  Gospel  Hebraisms 
are  comparatively  rare,  and  are  merely  such  as  might 
be  looked  for  in  a  book  written  by  a  Jew  and  repro- 
ducing Jewish  teaching.  However,  these  observations 
are  not  conclusive  in  favour  of  a  Greek  original.  In 
the  first  place,  the  unity  of  style  that  prevails  through- 
out the  book,  would  retner  prove  that  we  have  a  trans- 
lation. It  is  certain  that  a  good  portion  of  the  matter 
existed  first  in  Aramaic — at  all  events,  the  sayings  of 
(}hrist,  and  thus  almost  tlu^e-quartera  of  the  Gospel. 
Consequently,  these  at  least  the  Greek  writer  has 
translated.    And,  since  no  difference  in  language  and 


IftAKHKW 


60 


MATtspew 


style  can  be  detected  between  the  savings  of  Christ 
and  the  narratives  that  are  claimed  to  have  been  com- 
posed in  Greek,  it  would  seem  that  these  latter  are 
also  translated  from  the  Aramaic.  This  conclusion  is 
based  on  the  fact  that  they  are  of  the  same  origin  as 
the  discourses.  The  unity  of  plan  and  the  artificial 
arrangement  of  subject-matter  could  as  well  have 
been  made  in  Matthew's  Aramaic  as  in  the  Greek  doc- 
ument; the  fine  Greek  construction,  the  lapidary  style, 
the  elegance  and  good  order  claimed  as  cnaracteristic 
of  the  Gospel,  are  largely  a  matter  of  opinion,  the 
proof  being  that  critics  do  not  agree  on  this  question. 
Although  tne  phraseolog^r  is  not  more  Hebraic  than  in 
the  other  Gospels,  still  it  is  not  much  less  so.  To  sum 
up,  from  the  literary  examination  of  the  Greek  Gospel 
no  certain  conclusion  can  be  drawn  against  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Hebrew  Gospel  of  which  our  First  Gospel 
would  be  a  translation;  and  inversely,  this  examina- 
tion does  not  prove  the  Greek  Gospel  to  be  a  transla- 
tion of  an  Aramaic  original. 

(3)  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament. — It  is 
claimed  that  most  of  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Tes- 
tament are  borrowed  from  the  Seotuagint,  and  that 
this  fact  proves  that  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  com- 
posed in  Ureek.  The  first  proposition  is  not  accurate, 
and,  even  if  it  were,  it  would  not  necessitate  this  con- 
clusion. Let  us  examine  the  facts.  As  established  by 
Stanton  C'The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents",  II, 
Cambridge,  1909,  p.  342),  the  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  First  Gospel  are  divided  into  two 
classes.  In  the  first  are  ranged  all  those  quotations 
the  object  of  which  is  to  show  that  the  prophecies  have 
been  realised  in  the  events  of  the  life  of  Jesus.  They 
are  introduced  by  the  words:  **  Now  all  this  was  done 
that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  the  Lord  spoke  by  the 
prophet,''  or  other  similar  expressions.  The  quota- 
tions of  this  class  do  not  in  general  correspond  exactly 
with  any  particular  text.  Three  among  them  (ii,  15; 
viii,  17;  xxvii,  9,  10)  are  borrowed  from  the  Hebrew; 
five  (ii,  18;.iv,  15,  16:  xii,  18-21;  xiii,  35;  xxi,  4.  5) 
bear  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Septuagint,  but 
were  not  borrowed  from  that  version.  In  the  answer 
of  the  chief  priests  and  scribes  to  Herod  (ii,  6),  the  text 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  slightly  modified,  without,  how- 
ever, conforming  either  to  the  Hebrew  or  the  Septua- 
gint. The  Prophet  Micheas  writes  (v,  2) :  *'  And  thou 
Bethlehem,  Epnrata,  art  a  little  one  among  the  thou- 
sands of  Juda";  whereas  Matthew  says  (ii,  6):  **And 
thou  Bethlehem  the  land  of  Juda  art  not  the  least  among 
the  princes  of  Jvda^\  A  single  quotation  of  this 
firat  class  (iii,  3)  conforms  to  the  Septuagint,  and 
another  (i,  23)  is  almost  conformable.  These  cjuota- 
tions  are  to  be  referred  to  t^e  first  Evangelist  himself, 
and  relate  to  facts,  principally  to  the  birth  of  Jesus  (i, 
ii),  then  to  the  mission  of  John  the  Baptist,  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel  by  Jesus  in  Galilee,  the  miracles  of 
Jesus,  ete.  It  is  surprising  that  the  narratives  of  the 
Passion  and  tlie  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  very  clear  and  numerous  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament,  should  never  be  brought  into  relation 
wiUi  these  prophecies.  Many  critics,  e.  g.  Burkitt  and 
Stanton,  think  that  the  quotations  of  the  first  class 
are  borrowed  from  a  collection  of  Messianic  passages, 
Stanton  being  of  opinion  that  they^  were  accompanied 
by  the  event  that  constituted  their  realization.  This 
''catena  of  fulfilments  of  prophecv",  as  he  caUs  it,  ex- 
isted originally  in  Aramic,  but  whether  the  author  of 
the  First  Gospel  had  a  Greek  translation  of  it  is  uncer- 
tain. The  second  class  of  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  is  chiefly  composed  of  those  repeated  either 
by  the  Lord  or  by  His  interrogators.  Except  in  two 
passages,  they  are  introduced  l)y  one  of  the  formulie: 
^'It  is  written";  "As  it  is  written";  "Have  you  not 
read?  "  ''  Moses  said  ".  Where  Matthew  alone  quotes 
the  'Lord's  words,  the  quotation  is  sometimes  bor- 
rowed from  the  Septuagint  (v,  21  a,  27, 38),  or,  again,  it 
18  a  free  translation  which  we  are  unable  to  refer  to 


any  definite  text  (v,  21b,  23,  43).  In  thoae  passages 
where  Matthew  runs  parallel  with  Mark  and  Luke  or 
with  either  of  them,  all  the  quotations  save  one  (xi, 
10)  are  taken  almost  literally  from  the  Septuagint. 

(4)  Analogy  to  the  Gospels  of  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke. — From  a  first  comparison  of  the  Gospel  of  Mat- 
thew with  the  two  other  Synoptic  Gospels  we  find 
(a)  that  330  verses  are  peculiar  to  it  alone;  that  it  has 
between  330  and  370  in  common  with  both  the  others, 
from  170  to  180  with  Mark's,  and  from  230  to  240  with 
Luke's;  ifi)  that  in  like  parts  the  same  ideas  are  ex- 
pressed sometimes  in  identical  and  sometimes  in  differ- 
ent terms;  that  Matthew  and  Mark  most  frequently 
use  the  same  expressions,  Matthew  seldom  agreeing 
with  Luke  against  Mark.  The  divergence  in  their  use 
of  the  same  expressions  is  in  the  number  of  a  noun  or 
the  use  of  two  different  tenses  of  the  same  verb.  The 
construction  of  sentences  is  at  times  identical  and  at 
others  different.  (7)  That  the  order  of  narrative  is,  with 
certain  exceptions  which  we  shall  later  indicate,  almost 
the  same  in  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke.  These  facts 
indicate  that  the  three  Synoptists  are  not  independent 
of  one  another.  They  borrow  their  subject-matter 
from  the  same  oral  source  or  else  from  the  same  written 
documents.  To  declare  oneself  upon  this  alterna- 
tive, it  would  be  necessary  to  treat  the  S3moptio  ques- 
tion, and  on  this  critics  have  not  yet  agreed.  We 
shall,  therefore,  restrict  ourselves  to  what  concerns  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  From  a  second  comparison  of 
tlus  Gospel  with  Mark  and  Luke  we  ascertain :  (a)  that 
Mark  is  to  be  found  almost  complete  in  Matthew,  with 
certein  divergences  which  we  shall  note;  (b)  that  Mat- 
thew records  many  of  our  Lord's  discourses  in  common 
with  Luke;  (c)  that  Matthew  has  special  passages 
which  are  unknown  to  Mark  and  Luke.  Let  us  ex- 
amine these  three  points  in  detail,  in  an  endeavour  to 
learn  how  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  composed. 

(a)  Analogy  to  Mark. — (i)  Mark  is  found  complete 
in  Matthew,  with  the  exception  of  nimierous  slight 
omissions  and  the  following  pericopes:  Mark,  i,  23-28, 
35-39;  iv,  26-29;  vii,  32-36;  viii,  22-26;  ix,  39, 40;  xii, 
41-44.  In  all.  31  verses  are  omitted,  (ii)  The  gen- 
eral order  is  identical  except  that,  in  chapters  v-xiii, 
Matthew  groups  facts  of  the  same  nature  and  sayings 
conveying  the  same  ideas.  Thus,  in  Matt.,  viii,  1-15, 
we  have  uiree  miracles  that  are  separated  in  Mark;  in 
Matthew,  viii,  23-ix,  9,  there  are  gathered  together 
incidents  otherwise  arranged  in  Mark,  ete.  Matthew 
places  sentences  in  a  different  environment  from  that 

S'ven  them  by  Mark.  For  instance,  in  chapter  v,  15, 
atthew  inserts  a  verse  occurring  in  Mark,  iv,  21,  that 
should  have  been  placed  after  xiii,  23,  ete.  (iii)  In 
Matthew  the  narrative  is  usually  shorter  because  he 
suppresses  a  great  number  of  details.  Thus,  in  Mark, 
we  read : ' '  And  the  wind  ceased :  and  there  was  made  a 
great  calm",  whereas  in  Matthew  the  first  part  of  the 
sentence  is  omitted.  All  imnecessary  particulars  are 
dispensed  with,  such  as  the  nmnerous  picturesque 
features  and  indications  of  time,  place,  and  number,  in 
which  Mark's  narrative  abounas.  (iv)  Sometimes, 
however,  Matthew  is  the  more  detailed.  Thus,  in 
chapter  xii,  22-45,  he  gives  more  of  Christ's  discourse 
than  we  find  in  Mark,  hi,  20-30,  and  has  in  addition  a 
dialogue  between  Jesus  and  the  scribes.  In  chapter 
xiii,  Matthew  dwells  at  greater  length  than  Mark,  iv, 
upon  the  object  of  the  parables,  and  introduces  those 
of  the  cockle  and  the  leaven,  neither  of  which  Mark 
records.  Moreover,  Our  Lord's  apocalyptic  discourse 
is  much  longer  in  Matthew, xxi v-xxv  (97  verses),  than 
in  Mark,  xiii  (37  verses),  (v)  Changes  of  terms  01 
divergences  in  the  mode  of  expression  are  extremely 
frequent.  Thus,  Matthew  often  uses  Mitn^  when 
Mark  has  dMt;  fidy  ,  .  ,  5^,  instead  of  ical^  as  in 
Mark,  etc.;  the  aorist  instead  of  the  imperfect  em- 
ployed by  Mark.  He  avoids  double  negatives  and  the 
construction  of  the  participle  with  elfd;  his  style  is 
more  correct  and  less  harsh  than  that  of  Mafk^  he 


MATTBtW  61  MATtBEW 

fftsolves  Mark's  compound  verbs,  and  replaces  by  terms  emendations.    Matthew  and  Luke  omit  the  very  pen- 
in  current  use  the  rather  unusual  expressions  intro-  copes  that  occur  in  Mark. 

duoed^  by  Mark,  etc.  (vi)  He  is  free  from  the  lack  of  (c)  Parts  peculiar  to  Matthew. — ^These  are  numer- 
precision  which,  to  a  slight  extent,  characterizes  Mark,  ous,  as  Matthew  has  330  verses  that  are  distinctly  hi^ 
Thus,  Matthew  sajnB  ''  the  tetrarch "  and  not  "  the  own.  Sometimes  long  passages  occur,  such  as  those 
king  "  as  Blarkdoes,  in  speaking  of  Herod  Antipas;  *'on  recording^he  Nativity  and  early  Childaood  (i,  ii),  the 
the  third  day ''  instead  of  "  in  three  days''.  At  times  cure  of  the  two  blind  men  and  one  dumb  man  (ix,  27- 
the  changes  are  more  important.  Instead  of  "Levi,  34),  the  death  of  Judas  (xxvii,  3-10),  the  guard  placed 
son  of  Alpheus,"  he  says:  ''a  man  named  Matthew";  at  the  Sepulchre  (xxvii,  62-66),  the  imposture  of  the 
he  mentions  two  demoniacs  and  two  blind  persons,  chief  priests  (xxviii,  11-15),  the  apparition  of  Jesus  in 
whereas  Mark  mentions  onlpr  one  of  each,  etc.  (vii)  Galilee  (xxviii.  16-20),  a  great  portion  of  the  Sermon 
Matthew  extenuates  or  omits  everything  which,  in  on  the  Mount  (v,  17-37;  vi,  1-8;  vii,  12-23),  parables 
Mark,  might  be  construed  in  a  sense  derogatory  to  the  fxiii,  24-30;  35-53;  xxv,  1-13),  the  Last  Judgment 
Person  o?  Christ  or  unfavourable  to  tne  disciples,  {xxv,  31-46),  etc.,  and  sometimes  detached  sentences, 
Hius,  in  speaking  of  Jesus,  he  suppresses  the  following  as  in  xxiii,  3,  28,  33;  xxvii,  25.  etc.  (cf .  Rushbrooke, 
phrases:  ''And  looking  round  about  on  them  with  "Synopticon",  pp.  171-97).  Tnose  passages  in  which 
anger"  (Mark,  iii,  5);  *'And  when  his  friends  had  Matthew  reminds  us  that  facts  in  the  life  of  Jesus  are 
heard  of  it,  they  went  out  to  lav  hold  on  him.  For  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies,  are  likewise  noted  as 
they  said:  He  is  beside  himself  (Mark,  iii,  21),  etc.  peculiar  to  him,  but  of  this  we  have  already  spoken. 
Speaking  of  the  disciples,  he  does  not  say,  like  Mark,  These  various  considerations  have  given  rise  to  a 
that  *'they  imderstood  not  the  word,  and  they  were  great  number  of  hypotheses,  varying  in  detail,  but 
afraid  to  ask  him"  (ix,  31;  cf.  viii,  17, 18);  or  that  the  agreeing  fimdamentally.  Accordmg  to  the  majority 
disciples  were  in  a  state  of  profound  amazement,  be-  of  present  critics — ^H.  Holtzmann,  Wendt,  Jolicher, 
cause  *'they  understood  not  concerning  the  loaves;  for  Wemle,  von  Soden,  Wellhausen,  Hamack,  B.  Weiss, 
their  heart  was  blinded"  (vi,  52),  etc.  He  likewise  Nicolardot,  W.  Allen,  Montefiore,  Plummer,  and  Stan- 
omits  whatever  might  shock  his  readers,  as  the  saying  ton — ^the  author  of  the  First  Gospel  used  two  docu- 
of  the  Lord  recorded  by  Mark:  "The  sabbath  was  ments:  the  Gospel  of  Mark  in  its  present  or  in  an 
made  for  man,  and  not  man  for  the  sabbath"  (ii,  27).  earlier  form,  and  a  collection  of  discourses  or  sayings. 
Omissions  or  alterations  of  this  kind  are  very  numer-  which  is  designated  by  the  letter  Q.  The  repetitions 
ous-  It  must,  however,  be  remarked  that  between  occurring  in  Matthew  (v,  29,  30  =  xviii,  8, 9;  v,  32= 
Matthew  and  Blark  there  are  many  points  of  resem-  xix,  9;  x,  22a  =  xxiv,  9b;  xii,  39b  =  xvi,  4a,  etc.) 
blance  in  the  construction  of  sentences  (Matt.,  ix,  6  =  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  two  sources  fur- 
Mark,  il,  10;  Matt.,  xxvi,  47  =  Mark,  xiv,  43,  etc.);  in  nished  the  writer  with  material  for  his  Gospel.  Fur- 
their  mode  of  expression,  often  unusual,  and  in  short  thermore,  Matthew  used  documents  of  his  own.  In 
phrases  (Matt.,  ix,  16  =  Mark,  iL  21;  Matt.,  xvi,  28  =  this  hypothesis  the  Greek  Gospel  is  supposed  to  be 
Mark,  ix,  1;  Matt.,  xx,  25  =  Mark,  x,  42);  in  some  ori^nal,  and  not  the  translation  of  a  complete  Ara- 
pericopes,  narratives,  or  discourses,  where  the  greater  maic  Gospel.  It  is  admitted  that  the  collection  of 
part  of  the  terms  are  identical  (Matt.,  iv,  1^22  =  sayings  was  originally  Aramaic,  but  it  is  disputed 
Mark,  i,  16-20;  Matt.,  xxvi,  36-38  =  Mark,  xiv,  32-  whether  the  Evangelist  had  it  in  this  form  or  in  that 
34;  Matt.,  ix,  5,  6  =  Mark,  ii,  9-11),  etc.  (Ct.  Haw-  of  a  Greek  translation.  Critics  also  differ  regarding 
kins,  "  Hor»  synoptics  ",  pp.  54-67.)  the  manner  in  which  Matthew  used  the  sources.  Some 
(b)  Analogy  to  Luke. — ^A  comparison  of  Matthew  would  have  it  that  Matthew  the  Apostle  was  not  the 
and  Luke  reveals  that  they  have  but  one  narrative  in  author  of  the  First  Gospel,  but  merely  the  collector  of 
conmion,  viz.,  the  ciuie  of  the  centurion's  servant  the  sayings  of  Christ  mentioned  b}r  Papias.  ''How- 
(Matt.,  viii,  5-13  =  Luke,  vii,  1-10).  The  additional  ever",  says  Jdlicher,  ''the  author's  individuality  is  so 
matter  common  to  these  Evangelists,  consists  of  the  strikingly  evident  in  his  style  and  tendencies  that  it 
discourses  and  sayings  of  Christ.  In  Matthew  His  dis-  is  impossible  to  consider  the  GosF)el  a  mere  compila- 
courses  are  usually  gathered  together,  whereas  in  Luke  tion  .  Most  critics  are  of  a  like  opinion.  Endeavours 
they  are  more  freouently  scattered.  Nevertheless,  have  been  made  to  reconcile  the  information  furnished 
Matthew  and  Luke  nave  in  common  the  following  dis-  by  tradition  with  the  facts  resulting  from  the  study  of 
courses:  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt..  v-vii=s  the  Gospel  as  follows:  Matthew  was  known  to  KaVe 
the  Sermon  in  the  Plain,  Luke,  vi) ;  the  Lord's  exhor-  coUectea  in  Aramaic  the  sa3dng8  of  Christ,  and,  on  the 
tation  to  His  disciples  whom  He  sends  forth  on  a  mis-  other  hand,  there  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  seo- 
sion(Matt.,  x,  19-20. 26-33  =  Luke,  xii,  1 1-12 , 2-9) ;  the  ond  century  a  Gospel  containing  the  narratives  found 
discourse  on  John  tne  Baptist  fMatt.,  xi  =  Luke,  vii) ;  in  Mark  and  the  sayings  gathered  by  Matthew  in  Ara- 
the  discourse  on  the  Last  Juagment  (Matt.,  xxiv  :=  maic.  It  is  held  that  the  Greek  Gospel  ascribed  to 
Luke,  xvii).  Moreover,  these  two  Evangelists  possess  Matthew  is  a  translation  of  it^  made  by  him  or  by 
in  common  a  large  ntunoer  of  detached  sentences,  e.  g.,  other  tran^tors  whose  names  it  was  later  attempted 
Matt.,  ill,  7b-10,  12  =  Luke,  iii,  7l>-9,  17;  Matt.,  iv,  to  ascertain. 

3-11  =  Liike,  iv,  3-13;  Matt.^  ix,  37,  38  =f  Luke,  x,  To  safef^uard  tradition  further,  while  taking  into 
2;  Matt.,  xii,  43-45  =  Luke,  xi,  24-26,  etc.  (cf.  Rush-  consideration  the  facts  we  have  alread^r  noted,  it 
brooke,  "Synopticon",  pp.  134-70).  However,  in  might  be  supposed  that  the  three  Synoptists  worked 
these  parallelpassages  of  Matthew  and  Luke  there  are  upon  the  same  catechesis,  either  oral  or  written  and 
numerous  differences  of  expression,  and  even  some  originally  in  Aramaic,  and  that  they  had  detached 
divergences  in  ideas  or  in  the  manner  of  their  presen-  portions  of  this  catechesis,  varying  in  literary  condi- 
tation.  It  is  only  necessary  to  recall  the  Beatitudes  tion.  The  divergences  may  be  explained  first  by  this 
(Matt.,  V,  3-12  ss  Luke,  vi,  20b-25) :  in  Matthew  latter  fact,  and  then  by  the  hypothesis  of  different 
there  are  eight  beatitudes,  whereas  in  Luke  there  are  translations  and  by  each  Evangelist's  peculiar  method 
only  four,  which,  while  approximating  to  Matthew's  of  treating  the  subiect-matter,  Matthew  and  Luke 
in  point  of  conception,  differ  from  them  in  general  especially  having  adapted  it  to  the  purpose  of  their 
form  and  expression.  In  addition  to  having  in  com-  Gospel.  There  is  notbdng  to  prevent  the  supposition 
mon  parts  that  Mark  has  not,  Matthew  and  Luke  some-  that  Matthew  worked  on  the  Aramaic  catechesis;  the 
times  agree  against  Mark  in  parallel  narratives.  There  literary  emendations  of  Mark's  text  by  Matthew  may 
have  been  coimted  240  passages  wherein  Matthew  and  have  been  due  to  the  translator,  who  was  more  con- 
Luke  harmonise  with  each  other,  but  disagree  with  versant  with  Greek  than  was  the  popular  preacher  who 
Mark  in  the  way  of  presenting  events,  and  particularly  furnished  the  catechesis  reproduced  b^r  Mark.  In 
in  the  use  of  the  same  terms  and  the  same  grammatical  reality,  the  cmly  difficulty  lies  in  explaining  the  simi- 


MATTHEW                            62  MATTBSW 

larity  of  style  between  Matthew  and  Mark.  Firat  of  Mount  (v,  l-vii,  29);  (ii)  the  propagation  of  the  King- 
all,  we  may  observe  that  the  points  of  resemblance  are  dom  in  Galilee  (viii,  l-xviii,  35).  He  groups  together: 
less  numerous  than  thejr  are  said  to  be.  As  we  have  (a)  the  deeds  by  which  Jesus  established  tnat  He  was 
seen,  they  are  very  rare  in  the  narratives  at  all  events,  the  Messias  and  the  King  of  the  Kingdom:  various 
mucn  more  so  thaii  in  the  discourses  of  Christ.  Why,  cures,  the  calming  of  the  tempest,'missionary  journeys 
then,  should  we  not  suppose  that  the  three  S^optists,  throu^  the  land,  the  calling  of  the  Twelve  Apoetl^, 
depending  upon  the  same  Aramaic  catechesis,  some-  the  pnnciples  that  should  gmde  them  in  their  mission- 
times  agreed  in  rendering  similar  Aramaic  expressions  ary  travels  ^viii,  1-x,  42) ;  (p)  divers  teachings  of  Jesus 
in  the  same  Greek  words?  It  is  also  possible  to  sup-  called  forth  by  circumstances:  John's  message  and  the 
I>08e  that  saving  of  Christ,  which  in  tne  three  S3mop-  Lord's  answer,  Christ's  confutation  of  the  false  charges 
tic  Gospels  (or  m  two  of  them)  differed  only  in  a  few  of  the  Pharisees,  the  departure  and  return  of  the  un- 
expressions,  were  unified  by  copyists  or  other  persons,  clean  spirit  (xi,  1-xii.  50);  finally,  the  parables  of  the 
To  us  it  seems  probable  tliat  Matthew's  Greek  trans-  Kingdom,  ot  which  Jesus  makes  known  and  explains 
lator  used  Mark's  Greek  Gospel,  especiaUv  for  Christ's  the  end  (xiii,  3-52) .  (iii)  Matthew  then  relates  the  dif- 
discourses.  Luke.  also,  may  have  similarly  utilised  ferent  events  that  tenmnate  the  preaching  in  Galilee: 
Matthew's  Greek  Gospel  in  rendering  the  discourses  of  Christ's  visit  to  Nasareth  (xiii,  53-58).  the  naultiplica- 
Christ.  Finally,  even  though  we  should  suppose  that  tion  of  the  loaves,  the  walking  on  the  lake,  discussions 
Matthew  were  the  author  only  of  the  Logia^  the  full  with  the  Pharisees  concerning  legal  purifications,  the 
scope  of  which  we  do  not  know,  and  that  a  part  of  his  confession  of  Peter  at  Caesarea,  the  Transfiguration  of 
Greek  Gospel  is  derived  from  tnat  of  Mark,  we  would  Jesus,  prophecrjr  regarding  the  Passion  and  Resurree- 
still  have  a  ri^t  to  ascribe  this  First  Gospel  to  Mat-  tion,  and  teachings  on  scandal,  fraternal  correction, 
thew  as  its  pnncipal  author.  and  the  forgiveness  of  injuries  (xiv,  1-xviii,  35). 

Other  hypotheses  have  been  put  forth.  In  Zahn's  (2)  Outside  Galilee  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem  (xix- 
opinion,  Blatthew  wrote  a  complete  Gospel  in  Ara-  xx). — Jesus  leaves  Galilee  and  goes  beyond  the  Jor- 
maic;  Mark  was  familiar  with  this  docimient,  which  dan;  He  discusses  divorce  with  the  Pharisees;  answers 
he  used  while  abridging  it.  Matthew's  Greek  transla-  the  rich  young  man,  and  teaches  self-denial  and  the 
tor  utilised  Mark,  but  only  for  form,  whereas  Luke  danger  of  wealth;  explains  by  the  parable  of  the 
depended  upon  Mark  and  secondary  sources,  but  was  labourers  how  the  elect  will  be  called;  replies  to  the 
not  acquainted  with  Matthew.  According  to  Belser,  indiscreet  question  of  the  mother  of  the  sons  of  Zebe- 
Matthew  first  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew,  a  Greek  dee,  and  cures  two  blind  men  of  Jericho, 
translation  of  it  being  made  in  59-60,  and  Mark  de-  (3)  In  Jerusalem  (xxi~xxv). — Jesus  makes  a  trium- 
pended  on  Matthew's  Aramaic  dociunent  and  Peter's  phal  entry  into  Jeruisalem;  He  curses  the  barren  fig- 
preaching.  Luke  made  use  of  Mark,  of  Matthew  (both  tree  and  enters  into  a  dispute  with  the  chief  priests 
m  Aramaic  and  Greek),  and  also  of  oral  tradition,  and  the  Pharisees  who  ask  Him  by  what  authority  He 
According  to  Cameriynck  and  Coppieters.  the  First  has  banished  the  sellers  from  the  'Temple,  and  answers 
Gospel  in  its  present  form  was  composea  either  by  them  by  the  parables  of  the  two  sons,  the  murderous 
Matthew  or  some  other  Apostolic  wnter  lone  before  husbandmen,  and  the  marriage  of  the  king's  son.  New 
the  end  of  the  first  century,  by  combining  the  Aramaic  questions  are  put  to  Jesus  concerning  the  tribute,  the 
work  of  Matthew  and  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  resurrection  ot  the  dead,  and  the  greatest  command- 
Ill.  Plan  and  Contents  of  the  Fibst  Gospel. —  ment.  Jesus  anathematises  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 
The  author  did  not  wish  to  compose  a  biography  of  and  foretells  the  events  that  will  precede  and  aoocnn- 
Christ,  but  to  demonstrate,  by  recording  His  words  pany  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the  world, 
and  the  deeds  of  His  life,  that  He  was  the  Messias,  the  C.  The  Passion  and  the  ResurrecUem  of  Jesus  (xxvi- 
Head  and  Founder  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and  the  xxviii). — (1)  The  Passion  (xxvi-xxvii). — ^Events  are 
promulgator  of  its  laws.  One  can  scarcely  fail  to  rec-  now  hurrying  to  a  close.  The  Sanhedrin  plots  for  the 
ognise  that,  except  in  a  few  parts  (e.  g.  the  Childhood  death  of  Jesus,  a  woman  anoints  the  feet  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  Passion),  the  arrangement  of  events  and  of  and  Judas  betrays  his  Master.  Jesus  eats  the  pasch 
discourses  is  artificial.  Matthew  usually  combines  with  His  disciples  and  institutes  the  Eucharist.  In 
facts  and  precepts  of  a  like  nature.  Whatever  the  the  Garden  of  Olives,  He  enters  upon  His  agony  and 
reason,  he  favours  groups  of  three  (thirty-eight  of  offers  up  the  sacrifice  of  His  life.  He  is  arrested  and 
which  maybe  counted) — three  divisions  in  the  geneal-  brought  before  the  Sanhedrin.  Peter  denies  Christ; 
ogy  of  Jesus  (i,  17),  three  temptations  (iv,  1-11),  Judas  hanxs  himself .  Jesus  is  condemned  to  death  by 
three  examples  of  justice  (vi,  1-18),  three  cures  (viii,  Pilate  and  crucified;  He  is  buried,  and  a  guard  is 
1-15).  three  parables  of  the  seed  (xiii,  1-32),  three  placed  at  the  Sepulchre  (xxvi,  1-xxvii,  66). 
denials  of  Peter  Txxvi,  69-75),  etc.;  of  five  (these  are  (2)  Tlie  Resurrection  (xxviii). — Jesus  rises  the  third 
less  numerous)-^nve  long  discourses  (v-vii,  27 ;  x;  xiii,  day  and  appears  first  to  the  holy  women  at  Jerusalem, 
1~52 ;  xviii ;  xxiv-xxv) ,  ending  with  the  same  formula  then  in  Galilee  to  His  disciples,  whom  He  sends  forth  to 
(KflU  fy^rrro,  Urt  triktfftv  b  'Ii^oOt),  five  examples  of  the  propagate  throughout  the  world  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
fulfilment  of  the  law  (v,  21-48),  etc.;  and  of  seven —  IV.  Object  and  Doctrinal  Teaching  of  thf 
seven  parables  (xiii),  seven  maledictions  (xxiii),  seven  First  Gospel. — Immediately  after  the  descent  of  the 
brethren  (™i,  25),  etc.  The  First  Gospel  can  be  very  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  Apostles,  Peter  preached  that 
naturally  divided  as  follows : —  Jesus,  crucified  and  risen,  was  the  Messias,  the  Saviour 

A.  Iriroduction  (i-ii). — The  genealogy  of  Jesus,  the  of  the  World,  and  proved  this  assertion  by  relating  the 
prediction  of  His  Birth,  the  Magi,  the  Flight  into  life,  death,  and  resurrection  of  the  Lord.  This  was 
f^^pt,  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  the  return  to  the  first  Apostolic  teaching,  and  was  repeated  by  the 
Nasareth,  and  the  life  there.                ^  other  preachers  of  the  Gospel,  of  whom  tradition  tells 

B.  The  Public  Ministry  of  Jesus  (iii-xxv). — ^This  us  that  Matthew  was  one.  This  Evangelist  pro- 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts,  according  to  the  claimed  the  Gospel  to  the  Hebrews  and,  before  his  de- 
place  where  He  exercised  it.  parture  from  Jerusalem,  wrote  in  his  mother  tongue 

(1)  In  Galilee  (iii-xviii). — (a)  Preparation  for  the  the  Gospel  that  he  had  preached.  Hence  the  aim  of 
puDhc  ministiry  of  Jesus  (iii,  1-iv,  11):  John  the  Bap-  the  Evangelist  was  primarily  apologetic.  He  wished 
tist,  the  Baptism  of  Jesus,  the  Temptation,  the  return  to  demonstrate  to  his  readers,  wnether  these  were  con- 
to  Galilee,  (b)  The  preaching  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  verts  or  still  unbelieving  Jews,  that  in  Jesus  the  an- 
(iv,  17-xviii,  35) :  (i)  the  preparation  of  the  Kingdom  cient  prophecies  had  been  realized  in  their  entirety, 
by  the  preaching  of  penance,  the  call  of  the  disciples.  This  thesis  includes  three  principal  ideas:  (A)  Jesus  fi 
and  numerous  cures  (iv,  17-25),  the  promulgation  of  the  Messias,  and  the  kingdom  He  inaugurates  is  the 
the  code  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  i'                      on  the  Messianic  kingdom  foretold  by  the  prophets;  (B)  be 


1CATTH2W                               63  ICATTHEW 

cause  of  their  sins,  the  Jews,  as  a  nation,  shall  have  no  St.  Jerome,  whose  testimony  has  been  given  above 

part  in  this  kingdom;  (C)  the  Gospel  will  be  announced  QI,  A),  agree  in  declaringthat  St.  Matthew  wrote  his 

^..itf^aU  nations,  and  all  men  are  called  to  salvation.  Gospel  f  jr  the  Jews.    Ever3rthin£  in  this  Gospel 

A.  St.  Matthew  has  shown  tiiat  in  Jesus  all  the  an-  prov'js,  that  the  writer  addresses  himself  to  Jewish 
cient  prophesies  on  the  Messias  were  fulfilled.  He  readers.  He  does  not  explain  Jewish  customs  and 
was  the  Emmanuel,  bom  of  a  Viigin  Mother  (i,  22,  usages  to  them^  as  do  the  other  Evangelists  for  their 
23),  announced  by  Isaias  (vii,  14);  He  was  bom  at  Greek  and  Latin  readers,  and  he  assumes  that  they 
Bethlehem  (ii,  6)^  as  had  been  predicted  bv  Micheas  (v,  are  acquainted  with  Palestine,  since,  unlike  St.  Luke, 
2);  He  went  to  Egypt  and  was  recalled  thence  (ii,  15)  he  mentions  places  without  jiving  any  indication  of 
as  foretold  b^  Osee  (xi,  1).  According  to  the  pre-  their  topographical  position.  It  is  true  that  the  He- 
diction  of  Isaias  (xl,  3),  He  was  heralded  by  a  precur«  brew  wor£,  Emmantiel,  Golgotha,  Elot,  are  translated, 
sor,  John  the  Baptist  (iii,  1  sqq.) ;  He  cured  all  the  sick  but  it  is  likely  that  these  translations  were  inserted 
(viii,  16  8a.)»  that  the  prophecy  of  Isaias  (liii,  4)  might  when  the  Aramaic  text  was  reproduced  in  Greek.  St. 
be^ulfillea;  and  in  all  His  actions  He  was  indeed  the  MatUiew  chronicles  those  discourses  of  Christ  that 
same  of  whom  this  prophet  had  spoken  (xlii,  1).  His  would  interest  the  Jews  and  leave  a  favourable  im- 
teaching  in  parables  (xiii,  3)  was  conformable  to  what  pression  upon  them.  The  law  is  not  to  be  destroyed, 
Isaias  had  said  (vi,  9).  Finally,  He  suffered,  and  the  out  fulfilled  (v,  17).  He  emphasises  more  strongly 
entire  drama  of  His  Passion  and  Death  was  a  f uMl-  than  either  St.  Mark  or  St.  Luke  the  false  interpreta- 
ment  of  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  (Isaias,  Uii,  3-12;  tions  of  the  law  given  by  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  the 
Pft.  xxi,  13-22).  Jesus  proclaimed  Himself  the  Mee-  hypocrisy  and  even  the  vices  of  the  latter,  all  of  which 
sias  by  Hi's  approbation  of  Peter's  confession  (xvi,  16,  could  be  of  interest  to  Jewish  readers  only.  Accord- 
17)  and  bv  His  answer  to  the  high  priest  (xxvi,  63,  in^  to  certain  critics,  St.  Irenseus  TFra^ent  xxix) 
64).  St.  Matthew  also  endeavours  to  ^ow  that  the  said  that  Matthew  wrote  to  convert  the  Jews  by  prov- 
Kingdom  inaugurated  by  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Messianic  ing  to  them  that  Christ  was  the  Son  of  David.  This 
Kingdom.  From  the  beginning  of  His  public  life,  interpretation  is  badly  founded.  Moreover,  Origen 
Jesus  proclaims  that  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  is  at  (In  Matt.,  i)  categorically  asserts  that  this  Gospel 
hand  (iv,  17);  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  He  promul-  was  published  for  Jews  converted  to  the  Faith, 
gates  the  charter  of  this  kingdom,  and  in  parables  He  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  xxiv)  is  also  explicit _  on 
speaks  of  its  nature  and  conditions.  In  His  answer  this  point,  and  St.  Jerome,  summarising  tradition, 
to  the  envoys  of  John  the  Baptist  Jesus  specifically  teaches  us  that  St.  Matthew  published  his  Gospel  in 
declares  that  the  Messianic  Kinedom,  foretold  by  the  Judea  and  in  the  Hebrew  language,  principally  for 
Prophets,  has  come  to  pass,  and  He  describes  its  char-  those  among  the  Jews  who  believed  in  Jesus,  and  did 
acteristios:  *'  The  blind  see,  and  the  lame  walk,  the  lep-  not  observe  even  the  shadow  of  the  Law,  the  truth  of 
ers  arc  cleansed,  the  deaf  hear,  the  dead  rise  again,  the  the  (jospel  having  replaced  it  (In  Matt.  Prol.).  Subse- 
poor  have  the  gospel  preached  to  them."  It  was  in  quent  ecclesiastical  writers  and  Catholic  exegetes  have 
these  terms,  that  Isaias  had  described  the  future  king-  tau^t  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  for  the  converted  Jews, 
dom  (xxxv,  5, 6;  bd,  1).  St.  Matthew  records  a  very  "However,"  savs  Zahn  (Introd.  to  the  New  Testa- 
formal  expression  of  the  Lord  concerning  the  coming  ment,  II,  562),  "the  apologetical  and  polemical  char- 
of  the  Kingdom:  "  But  if  I  by  the  Spirit  of  God  cast  acter  of  the  book,  as  well  as  the  choice  of  language, 
out  devils,  then  is  the  kingdom  of  God  come  upon  you  "  make  it  extremely  probable  that  Matthew  wished  his 
(xii,  28).  ^  Moreover,  Jesus  could  call  Himself  the  Mes-  book  to  be  read  primarily  by  the  Jews  who  were  not 
sias  only  inasmuch  as  the  Kingdom  of  God  had  come,  yet  Christians.    It  was  suited  to  Jewish  Christians 

B.  The  Jews  as  a  nation  were  rejected  because  of  who  were  still  exposed  to  Jewish  influencot  and  also  to 
their  sins,  and  were  to  have  no  part  in  the  Kingdom  of  Jews  who  still  resisted  the  (jospel". 

Heaven*    This  rejection  had  been  several  times  pre-  VI.  Date  and  Placb  of  CoMPOsmoK. — ^Ancient  eo- 

dicted  by  the  prophets,  and  St.  Matthew  shows  that  it  clesiastical  writers  are  at  variance  as  to  the  date  of 

was  because  of  its  incredulity  that  Israel  was  excluded  the  composition  of  the  First  Gospel.    Eusebius  (in  his 

from  the  Kingdom;  he  dwells  on  all  the  events  in  which  Chronicle),^  Theophylact,  and  Euthymius  Zigabenus 

the  increasing  obduracy  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  con-  are  of  opinion  that  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  written 

spicuous,  manifested  first  in  the  princes  and  then  in  the  eight  years,  and  Nicephorus  Callistus  fifteen  yeai^ 

hatred  of  the  people  who  beseech  Pilate  to  put  Jesus  after  Christ  s  Ascension — ^i.  e.  about  a.  d.  38-45.    Ac-> 

to  death*    Thus  tne  Jewish  nation  itself  was  account-  cording  to  Eusebius,  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in 

able  for  its  exclusion  from  the  Messianic  kingdom.  Hebrew  when  he  left  ralestine.    Now,  following  a  cer- 

C.  That  the  pagans  were  called  to  salvation  instead  tain  Uadition  (admittedly  not  too  reliable),  the  Apos- 
of  the  Jews,  Jesus  declared  explicitly  to  the  unbeliev-  ties  separated  twelve  years  after  the  Ascension,  hence 
ing  Israelites:  "Therefore  I  say  to  you  that  the  long-  the  Gospel  would  have  been  written  about  the  year 
dom  of  God  shall  be  taken  from  you,  and  shall  be  given  40-42 ;  but  following  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  v,  2),  it 
to  a  nation  yielding  the  fruits  thereof  "  (xxi,  43) ; "  He  is  possible  to  fix  the  definitive  departure  of  the  Apostles 
that  soweth  the  good  seed,  is  the  Son  of  man.  And  about  the  year  60,  in  which  event  the  writing  of  the  Goe- 
the field  is  the  world  "  (xiii,  37-38).  "  And  this  gospel  pel  would  have  taken  place  about  the  year  60-68.  St. 
of  the  kingdom  shall  be  preached  in  the  whole  world  Iren£>us  is  somewhat  more  exact  concerning  the  date  of 
for  a  testimony  to  all  nations,  and  then  shall  the  con-  the  First  (jospel,  as  he  says:  "  Matthew  produced  his 
summation  come"  (xxiv,  14).  Finally,  appearing  to  Gospel  when  Peter  and  Paul  were  evangelizing  and 
His  Apostles  in  Galilee,  <lesus  ^ves  them  this  supreme  founding  the  Church  of  Rome,  consequently  about  the 
command : "  All  power  is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  in  years  6^-67."  However,  this  text  presents  difficultiee 
earth.  Going  therefore,  teachye  all  nations"  (xxviii,  of  interpretation  which  render  its  meaning  xmcertain 
18,  19).  These  last  words  of  Cnrist  are  the  summary  and  prevent  us  from  deducing  any  positive  conclusion, 
of  the  First  Gospel.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  main-  In  our  day  opinion  is  rather  divided.  Catholic  crit- 
tain  that  these  words  of  Jesus,  commanding  that  all  ics,  in  general,  favour  the  years  40-45,  although  some 
nations  be  evangelised,  were  not  authentic,  but  in  a  (e.  g.  Patrisi)  fo  back  to  36-39  or  (e.  g.  Aberle)  tc 
subsequent  paragraph  we  shall  prove  that  all  the  37.  Belser  assigns  41-42;  Comply,  40-50;  Sch&fer, 
Lord's  sayings,  recorded  in  the  First  Gos^l,  proceed  50-51 ;  ^  Hug,  Reuschl,  Schanz,  and  Rose,  60--67.  This 
from  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  For  this  particular  ques-  last  opinion  is  founded  on  the  combined  testimonies  of 
tton  see,  Meinerts,  "Jesus  und  die  Heidenmission''  St.  Irensus  and  Eusebius,  and  on  the  remark  inserted 
(Monster,  1908).  parenthetically  in  the  discourse  of  Jesus  in  chapter 

V.  Dkstikation  op  the  GospBii. — The  ecclesiasti-  xxiv,  15: "  When  therefore  you  shall  see  the  abonuna- 

ttd  writers  Fapias,  St.  Irenseus,  Orij^n,  Eusebius,  t^ad  tiop  of  4e8olatioQ^  wlijch  was  spoken  of  by  D^mel  tte 


liATTHEW 


64 


UATTHXW 


prophet,  standing  in  the  holy  place":  here  the  author 
interrupts  the  sentence  and  invites  the  reader  to  take 
heed  oi  what  follows,  viz.:  ''Then  they  that  are  in 
Judea,  let  them  flee  to  the  mountains."  As  there 
would  have  been  no  occasion  for  a  like  warning  had 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  already  taken  place, 
Matthew  must  have  written  his  Gospel  before  the  year 
70  (about  65-70  according  to  Bati£fol).  Protestant 
and  Liberalistic  critics  also  are  greatly  at  variance  as 
regards  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  First  Goe- 
pel.  Zahn  sets  the  date  about  61-66,  and  Godet  about 
60-66;  Keim,  Meyer,  Holtsmann  (in  his  earlier  writ- 
ings), BeyscfaJas,  and  Maclean,  before  70;  Bartlet 
about  68-69;  W,  Allen  and  Plunmier,  about  65-75; 
Hilgenfeld  and  Holtzmann  (in  his  later  writings),  soon 
after  70;  B.  Weiss  and  Hamack,  about  70-75:  Eenan, 
later  than  85;  R^ville.  between  60  and  96;  jQucher,  in 
81-96;  Monteflore,  about  90-100;  Volkmar,  in  110; 
Baur,  about  130-34.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
arguments  advanced  to  prove  that  the  First  (}ospel 
was  written  several  ^ears  after  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem. 
When  Jesus  prophesies  to  His  Apostles  that  they  wiU 
be  delivered  up  to  the  councils,  scourged  in  Uie  syna- 
gogues, brougnt  before  governors  and  kings  for  His 
sake;  that  they  will  give  testimony  of  Him,  will  for 
Him  be  hated  and  driven  from  city  to  citv  (z.  17-23); 
and  when  He  commissions  them  to  teacn  all  nations 
and  make  them  His  disciples,  His  words  Intimate,  it  is 
claimed,  the  lapse  of  many  ^ears,  the  establishment  of 
the  Chnstian  Church  in  distant  parts,  and  its  cruel 
persecution  by  the  Jews  and  even  by  Roman  emperors 
and  governors.  Moreover,  certain  sayings  of  the  Lord 
— such  as:  "Thou  art  Peter;  and  upon  this  rock  I  will 
build  my  church"  (xvi,  18);  "  If  he  [thy  brother]  will 
not  hear  them:  tell  the  Church"  (xviii,  10) — carry  us 
to  a  time  when  the  Chnstian  Church  was  already  con- 
stituted, a  time  that  could  not  have  been  much  earlier 
than  the  year  100.  The  fact  is,  that  what  was  pre- 
dicted by  Our  Lord,  when  He  announced  future  events 
and  established  the  charter  and  foundations  of  His 
Church,  is  converted  into  reality  and  made  coexistent 
with  the  writing  of  the  First  Gospel.  Hence,  to  give 
these  arguments  a  probatorv  value  it  would  be  neces- 
sary either  to  deny  Christ's  knowledge  of  the  future  or 
to  maintain  that  the  teachings  embodied  in  the  First 
Gospel  were  not  authentic. 

Vil.  Historic  Value  of  thb  Fibst  Ctobpel. — 0/ 
(he  Narratives, — (1)  Apart  from  the  narratives  of  the 
(]!hildhood  of  Jesus,  the  cure  of  the  two  blind  men,  the 
tribute  money,  ana  a  few  incidents  connected  with  the 
Passion  and  Kesurrection,  all  the  others  recorded  by  St. 
Matthew  are  found  in  both  the  other  Synoptists,  with 
one  exception  (viii,  5-13)  which  occurs  only  in  St. 
Luke.  Critics  agree  in  declaring  that,  regarded  as  a 
whole,  the  events  of  the  life  of  Jesus  recorded  in  the 
Sjrnoptic  Gospeb  are  historic.  For  us,  these  facts  are 
historic  even  m  detail,  our  criterion  of  truuh  being  the 
same  for  the  af  srregate  and  the  details.  The  Gospel  of 
St.  Mark  is  acioiowledsed  to  be  of  great  historic  value 
because  it  reproduces  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter.  But, 
for  almost  all  the  events  of  the  (jospel,  the  Inform 
mation  given  by  St.  Mark  is  found  in  St.  Mattliew, 
while  such  as  are  peculiar  to  the  latter  are  of  the  same 
nature  as  events  recorded  by  St.  Mark,  and  resemble 
them  so  closely  that  it  is  hard  to  imderstand  why  they 
should  not  be  historic,  since  they  also  are  derivea  from 
the  primitive  catechesis.  It  may  be  further  observed 
that  the  narratives  of  St.  Matthew  are  never  contra- 
dictory to  the  events  made  known  to  us  by  profane 
documents,  and  that  they  ^ve  a  very  accurate  account 
of  the  moral  and  religious  ideas,  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Jewish  people  of  that  time.  In  his  re- 
cent work,  "The  Synoptic  Giospels"  (London,  1909), 
Montefiore,  a  Jewish  critic,  does  full  justice  to  St. 
Matthew  on  these  different  points.  Finally,  all  the 
objections  that  could  possibly  have  been  raised  against 
tjj^irveracitvvanishjifwebutk^"  stand- 


point of  the  author,  and  what  he  wished  to  demonBtz&te. 
The  comments  that  we  are  about  to  make  conoeminf 
the  Lord's  utterances  are  also  applicable  to  the  Goep? 
narratives.  For  a  demonstration  of  the  historic  v!:..ae 
of  the  narratives  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  we  recommend 
Father  Durand's  scholarly  work,  *'  L'enfance  de  Jdsua- 
Christ  d'aprte  les  6vangiles  canoniques"  (Paris,  1907). 

(2)  OJ  the  Discourses.-^The  greater  part  of  Christ's 
short  sayings  are  found  in  the  three  Synoptic  Goepeb, 
and  consequently  spring  from  the  early  catechesis 
His  long  discourses,  recorded  by  St.  Matthew  and  St 
Luke,  also  formed  part  of  an  authentic  catechesis,  and 
critics  in  general  are  agreed  in  acknowledging  theii 
historic  viQue.  There  are,  however,  some  who  main- 
tain that  the  Evangelist  modified  nis  documentA  to 
adapt  them  to  the  uuth  professed  in  Christian  com- 
munities at  the  time  when  he  wrote  his  Gospel.  Hiey 
also  claim  that,  even  prior  to  the  composition  of  the 
Gospeb,  Christian  faith  had  altered  ApoetoUo  reminis- 
oences.  Let  us  first  of  all  observe  that  these  objections 
would  have  no  weight  whatever,  unless  we  were  to 
concede  that  the  First  Gospel  was  not  written  by  S^ 
Matthew.  And  even  assuming  the  same  point  of  view 
as  our  adversaries,  who  think  that  our  Synoptic  Gos- 
pels depend  upon  anterior  sources,  we  maintain  that 
these  changes,  whether  attributable  to  the  Evangelists 
or  to  their  sources  (i.  e.  the  faith  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians), could  not  have  been  efiPected. 

The  alterations  claimed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Christ's  teachings  could  not  have  been  made  by 
the  Evangelists  themselves.  We  know  that  the  latter 
selected  their  subject-matter  and  disposed  of  it  each 
in  his  own  way,  and  with  a  special  end  in  view;  but 
this  matter  was  the  same  for  all  three,  at  least  for  the 
whole  contents  of  the  pericopes,  and  was  taken  from 
the  original  catechesis,  which  was  already  sufficiently 
well  established  not  to  admit  of  the  introduction  into 
it  of  new  ideas  and  unknown  facts.  Agtun.  aU  the  doc- 
trines which  are  claimed  to  be  foreign  to  the  teachings 
of  Jesus  are  found  in  the  three  Svnoptists,  and  are  so 
much  a  part  of  the  very  framework  of  each  Gospel  that 
their  removal  would  mean  the  destruction  of  the  orxier 
of  the  narrative.  Under  these  conditions,  that  there 
might  be  a  substantial  change  in  the  doctrines  taught 
by  Christ,  it  would  be  necessary  to  suppose  a  previous 
imderstanding  among  the  three  Evangelists,  which 
seems  to  us  impossibk,  as  Matthew  anoLulre  at  least 
appear  to  have  worked  independently  of  each  other, 
and  it  is  in  their  Gospels  that  Christ's  longest  dis- 
courses are  found.  These  doctrines,  which  wex«  al- 
ready embodied  in  the  sources  used  by  the  three 
Synoptists,  could  not  have  resulted  from  the  delibera- 
tions and  opinions  of  the  earliest  Christians.  First  of 
all,  between  the  death  of  Christ  and  the  initial  drawing 
up  of  the  oral  catechesis,  there  was  not  sufficient  time 
Tor  originating,  and  subsequently  enjoining  upon  the 
Christian  conscience,  ideas  diametrically  opposed  to 
thooe  sold  to  have  '«en  exclusively  tauj^t  bv  Jesus 
Christ.  For  example,  let  us  take  ihe  doctnnes  claimed, 
above  all  others,  to  have  been  altered  by  Uie  belief  or 
Jie  first  Christian'',  namely  that  Jeeus  Christ  had  called 
all  nations  to  salvation.  It  is  said  that  the  Lord  re- 
stricted His  mission  to  Israel,  and  that  all  those  t-exts 
wherein  He  teaches  that  the  Gospel  should  be  preached 
throughout  the  entire  world  originated  with  the  early 
Christians  and  especially  with  Paul.  Now,  in  the  fint 
place,  these  universalist  doctrines  could  not  have 
spru^  up  among  the  Apostles.  Thev  and  the  primi- 
tive (Inristians  were  Jews  of  poorly  developed  mtelli- 
^nce,  of  very  narrow  outlook,  and  were  moreover 
imbued  with  particularist  ideas.  From  the  Gospels 
and  Acts  it  is  easy  to  see  that  these  men  were  totally 
unacquainted  with  universalist  idf?as,  which  had  to  be 
urged  upon  them,  and  which,  even  then,  they  wera 
slow  to  accept.  Moreover,  how  could  this  first  Chris- 
tian generation,  who,  we  are  told,  believed  tha,t  Christ  a 
Second  Coming  was  dose  at  hand,  have  ori^navar 


MATTHEW  65  MATTHEW 

these  pfmam  prodaimiDg  that  before  this  event  took  became  M.A.  5  JuW^  1597.  He  seems  to  have  been 
place  the  Uospel  should  be  preached  to  all  nations?  harshly  treated  by  his  parents,  who  were  angered  at 
These  doctrines  do  not  emanate  from  St.  Paul  and  his  his  youthful  extravagance.  On  15  May,  1599,  he 
disciples.  Long  before  St.  Paul  could  have  exercised  was  admitted  at  Grajrs  Inn,  where  he  began  his  close 
any  influence  whatever  over  the  Christian  conscience,  intimacy  with  Sir  f^ancis  Bacon,  and  two  years  later 
the  £«vangelical  sources  containing  these  precepts  had  became  M.P.  for  Newport,  Cornwall.  IJuring  this 
already  been  composed.  The  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  period  of  his  life  he  frequented  the  dissolute  court  of 
was  the  special  propagator  of  these  doctrines,  but  he  Mizabeth.  On  the  accession  of  James  I  he  sat  in 
was  not  their  creator.  E2nlightened  by  the  Holy  Parliament  for  St.  Alban  s,  and  joined  the  new  court, 
Spirit,  he  understood  that  the  ancient  prophecies  had  receiving  a  large  grant  from  the  Crown  which  amply 
been  realised  in  the  Person  of  Jesus,  and  that  the  provided  for  his  future.  Having  always  desired  to 
doctrines  tau^^t  by  Christ  wore  identical  with  those  travel,  he  left  England  in  November.  1604,  visiting 
revealed  bv  tne  Scriptures.  France  on  his  way  to  Florence,  thougn  he  had  prom- 

Finaily,  by  considering  as  a  whole  the  ideas  consti-  ised  his  father  he  would  not  go  to  Itainr.  At  Florence 
luting  the  basis  of  the  eariiest  Christian  writings,  we  he  came  into  the  society  of  several  Catholics  and 
ascertain  that  these  doctrines,  taught  by  the  prophets,  ended  by  being  received  into  the  Church.  A  new 
and  accentuated  by  the  life  and  words  of  Christ,  form  persecution  was  raging  in  England,  but  he  determined 
the  framework  of  the  Gospels  and  the  basis  of  Pauline  to  return.  He  was  imprisoned  in  the  Fleet  for  six 
preaching.  They  are,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  fasces  months,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  shake  his 
which  it  would  be  impossible  to  unbind,  and  into  resolution.  Finally  he  was  allowed  to  leave  England, 
which  no  new  idea  could  be  inserted  without  destrov-  and  he  travdled  in  Flanders  and  Spain.  In  1614  he 
ing  its  stroasth  and  unity.  In  the  prophecies,  tne  studied  for  the  priesthood  at  Rome  and  was  ordained 
Gospels,  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  the  firat  Christian  by  Cardinal  Bk^armine  (20  May).  The  king  allowed 
wriUngs  an  intimate  correlation  joins  all  together,  him  to  return  to  Englana  in  16l7,  and  he  stayed  for  a 
Jesus  Christ  Himself  being  the  centre  and  the  common  time  with  Bacon,  whose  essays  he  translated  into 
bond.  What  one  has  said  of  Him,  the  others  reiterate,  Italian.  From  1619  to  1622  he  was  again  exiled,  but 
and  never  do  we  hear  an  isolated  or  a  discordant  on  his  return  was  favourably  received  by  the  king,  and 
voice,  H  Jesus  taught  doctrines  contrary  or  foreign  acted  as  an  agent  at  court  to  promote  the  marriage  of 
to  those  which  the  Evangelists  placed  upon  His  lips.  Prince  Charles  with  the  Spanish  Infanta.  In  the  same 
then  He  becomes  an  inexplicable  phenomenon,  cause  James  sent  him  to  Madrid  and  on  his  return 
because,  in  the  matter  of  ideas.  He  is  in  contradiction  kmghted  him,  20  Oct.^  1623.  During  the  reign  of 
to  the  society  in  i^ich  He  moved,  and  must  be  Ch«*les  I  he  remained  m  high  favoiu:  at  court,  where 
ranked  with  the  least  intelligent  sections  among  the  he  laboured  indefatigably  for  the  Catholic  cause. 
Jewish  people.  We  are  justified,  therefore,  in  con-  When  the  Civil  War  broke  put  in  1640  he,  now  an  old 
cludin|e  that  the  discourses  of  Christ,  recorded  in  the  man,  took  refuge  with  the  English  Jesuits  at  their 
First  Cospel  and  rewoducing  the  Apostolic  cateche-  house  at  Ghent,  where  he  died.  He  was  always  an 
sis,  are  authentic.  ^  We  may\  however,  again  observe  ardent  supporter  of  the  Jesuits,  and,  though  it  has 
that,  lus  aim  being  chieny  apologetic,  Matthew  long  been  denied  that  he  was  ever  himself  a  Jesuit, 
selected  and  presented  the  events  of  Christ's  life  and  papers  recently  discovered  at  Oulton  Abbey  show 
also  these  chsoourses  in  a  way  that  would  lead  up  to  strong  reason  for  supposing  that  he  was  in  fact  a  mem- 
the  oonslusive  proof  which  he  wished  to  eive  of  the  ber  m  the  Society.  Besides  the  Italian  version  of 
Messiahship  of  Jesus.  Still  the  Evangelist  neithw  Bacon's  "  Essays  ",  he  translated  St.  Augustine's 
substantially  altered  the  original  catechesis  nor  "  Confessions  "  (1620),  the  Life  of  St.  Teresa  written 
invented  doctrines  foreign  to  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  by  herself  (1623),  and  Father  Arias's  "  Treatise  of  Pa- 
His  action  bore  upon  details  or  form,  but  not  upon  tience  "  (1650).  His  original  works  were:  "A  Relation 
the  basis  of  words  and  deeds.  of  the  death  of  Troilo  Savelle,  Baron  of  Rome  " 

CaihoUo  Attthon:  Maldokatus,  In  MaU.  (Maina,  1874);   (1620): "  A  Missive  of  Consolation  sent  from  Flanders 

^^3^^!SS!r»SST^^ui:J,'%Z:^Tll&^^  V>  the  CathoU«  of  Engl«.d  (1647)5  «  A  True  HJjtor- 

1878) :  ScRAsn,  Commeniar  nher  dat  Svang.  de«  hi.  Matt.  (Frei-  ical  Relation  of  the  Conversion  of  Sir  Tobie  Matthews 
bun,   1879) :  tofABBHBAOTO,  Comment  in  Bvang.  ^eanuium  to  the  Holie  Catholic  Faith  "  (first  published  in  1904); 

(ptL^^ljKv 'G^iJJ^^                            IfoiMuf  fc  some  manuscript  works  (see  GiUow,  "  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 

19041:  Jaoouxxb,  //i«r3ea  Um-e»du  Nouveau  Testament,  Ii  (6th  Cath.'\  IV,  541-42).    His  letters  Were  edited  by  Dr. 

$?  •i*'%i?**Si  ^^^  Cofi»m«fi«.  otOoMpd^ a.  MatthtwC^em  John  Donne  in  1660. 

Y«J^  1808);  MacEtillt.  Bxvomivm  cf  tK»  OoepeU  (Dublin,  Matthsw.  Life  of  Sir  Tobie  Matthew  (with  portrait  and  many 

*^??1  n_.i..«-  A^x. lut .^  /^^.    mi.^  n f  -^  new  .documents)    (London,  1907);  .Id«m.    A    Ttub    Hielorical 


u  Mu       rt^~i««    ion.;   ion^^-^Pi^^riff^  ri!^'    Butlbb  (London.  1795);  Gnxow.  Bibl,  Diet.  Sng.  .- 

Af  ottA^r  (L«idon-  1^5.  .1906);  Wim/>ughbtAlijjn,C^  531-43  (giving  iSfenmcea  to  many  other  >ouroe8):8»ccoMB«  in 

teri    m  OioOoepd  aeeordtngto  8i.  ^.^'^f^^f^'S^^lJ^li  I>^  ^S,  BiHf,  (with  numerous  and  raluable  other  references). 

Pi.OMifKB,  Commentary  on  the  Ootpd  aeeormng  to  at,  Matthew  ^              •-»     v                                           !?«--—.-  i2TT»f»r.«* 

(London.  1909);  Hawkiks.  Hora  Synoptiea  (2nd  ed.,  Oxford,  l!J>WIN  UURTON. 

}2?^iif^S"ii;?e^^^^^^^  MattfiewofCnM^ow.renojmedsch^^^ 

Halle,  1902)   HoLnMANw,  Die  Synopiiker  (3rd  ed.,  TQbingen;  of  the  fourteenth  century,  b.  at  Oacow  about  1335; 

WD.  Zaw,  Dae  Bwin^iumdee  MjMhaue  (Ldp«ig.  1903),  d.  at  Pisa,  6  March,  1410.     The  view,  once  generally 

SJ'S5SS£f"/Tfr^^  held,  that  he  was  descended  from  tke  Pomeranian 

Gbobmaioi  and  KLovmaiAim,  Mauhdue  (TQbingen,  1909).  noble  family  of  Crakow,  IS  now  entirely  discredited 

E.  Jacquisb.  (cf.  Sommerlad,  "Matth&us  von  Krakow 'V,  1801). 

Dit«  i^uirgy.                         ,      *     a        *            ^  elor  of  arts  in  1356  and  master  in  1357,  and  later  fiUed 

Matthew,    Pfteudo-Gospel    of.    See    Apocrypha,  for  several  terms  the  office  of  dean  in  the  same  faculty. 

Hatdiew,  Sir  Tobie.  English  priest,  b.  at  Salis-  In  1387  we  first  find  documentary  reference  to  him  as 

bury,  3  Oct.,  1577;  died  at  (ihent,  13  Oct.,  1655.    He  professor  of  theologv,  and  one  manuscript  speaks  of 

was  the  son  of  Dr.  Tobie  Matthew,  then  -Dean  of  nim  as  "  city  preacner  of  Prague".     About  1382  he 

Christ  Church,  Oxford,  afterwards  Anglican  Bishop  headed  an  embassy  from  his  university  to  Urban  VI, 

of  Durham,  and  finally  Archbishop  of  York,  and  before  whom  he  delivered  a  dissertation  in  favour  of 

FVances,    daughter   of    William    Barlow,    Anglican  reform.    Accepting  an  invitation  from  the  University 

Bishop  of  Chichester.    Tobie  Matthew  matricmated  of  Heidelberg,  he  joined  its  professorial  staff  in  1305, 

from  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  13  March,  1589-00,  and  and  a  year  later  was  appointed  rector.    In  139$  b?  wa9 


66 

named  ooamsfllor  to  Rui>recht  11,  and  the  raiaing  of  then  beheaded  (ef.  Tillemont.  "M^moireB  pour  mrnr 

Ruprecht  III  to  the  difmity  of  King  of  Rome  in  1400  k  rhistoire  eocl.  dee  six  pramien  sidoles'',  I,  406-07). 

marks  the  begining  of  Matthew's  career  as  a  states-  It  is  said  that  St.  Helena  brought  the  relics  of  SL 

man.   Freouently  enq)lo}red  by  the  king  both  at  court  Matthias  to  Rome,  and  that  a  portion  of  them  was  at 

and  on  emoassies^e  appeared  at  Rome  in  1403  to  Trier.    BoUandus  (Acta  &&,,  May,  III)  doubts  if  the 

solicit   Boniface   iX's  confirmation   of  Ruprecht's  relics  that  are  in  Rome  are  not  rather  those  of  the  St. 

claims.    On  the  elevation  of  Innocent  VII  to  the  Matthias  who  was  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  about  the  year 

papal  throne  in  1404,  Matthew  greeted  him  on  behalf  120,  and  whose  histoiy  would  seem  to  haye  been  con- 

of  Kuprecht.    During  the  same  vear  Matthew  was  ap-  founded  with  that  of  the  Apostle.   The  Latin  Church 

pointed  Bishop  (A  Worms,  but,  bevond  his  settling  of  celebrates  the  feast  of  St.  Matthias  on  24  February, 

the  dispute  between  the  people  and  clergy  of  that  city,  and  the  Greek  Church  on  9  August, 
we  know  little  of  his  episcopal  activity.           ^  Clement  of  Aleiandria  (Strom.,  Ill,  4)  records  a 

That  he  continued  to  reside  at  Heidelberg  is  very  sentence  that  the  Nicolaitans  ascribe  to  Matthias: 

probable,  and  also  that  he  continued  to  act  as  pro-  "  We  must  combat  our  flesh,  set  no  value  upon  it,  and 

lessor.    Grnrory  XII  wished  to  name  him  Canunal  concede  to  it  nothing  that  can  flatter  it,  out  rather 

Priest  of  S.  Cynad  in  Thermis,  but  Matthew  declined  increase  the  growth  of  our  soul  by  faitii  and  knowl- 

the  honour.    As  ambassador  of  Ruprecht  to  the  edge".     This  teaching  was  probably  found  in  the 

Council  of  Pisa,  he  displayed  the  greatest  seal  on  be-  Gospel  of  Matthias  which  was  mentioned  by  Origen 

half  of  Gregory  XII,  whom  he  re^irded  as  the  legiti-  (Horn,  i  in  Lucam) ;  by  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  Ill,  26), 

mate  occupant  of  the  papal  throne.    He  was  a  veiy  who  attributes  it  to  heretics;  fay  St.  Jerome  (Praef .  in 

prolific  theological  writer.    Apart  from  Biblical  com-  Matth.) ;  and  in  the  Decree  of  Gelasius  (VI,  8)  which 

mentiuies,  sermons,  and  works  on  current  topics,  the  declares  it  apocryphal.    It  is  at  the  end  of  the  list  of 

most  important  of  nis  writings  are:  "De  consolatione  the  Codex  Barroccianus  (206).    This  Gospel  is  prob- 

theologise'';"Demodoconfitendi";"Depuritatecon-  ably  the  document  whence  Clement  of  Alexandria 

scientio";  "De  corpore  Christi";  ''De  celebratione  quoted  several  passa^,  saving  that  they  were  bor^ 

Missee  ".    That  he  wrote  "  De  arte  moriendi " — ^to  be  rowed  from  the  traditions  of  Matthias,  IlapaMrvw,  tlie 

distinguished  from  a  similar  work  by  Cardinal  Cap-  testimony  of  which  he  claimed  to  have  been  invoked 

ran — cannot  be  maintained  with  oertaintv,  and  recent  by  the  heretics  Valentinus,  Marcion,  and  BaailideB 

investigation  has  shown  beyond  doubt  tnat  the  work  (Strom.,  VII,  17).     Accordiiu^  to  the  Philosaphou- 

"De  squaloribus  curiie  Romans"   is   not  from  his  mena,  Vll,  20,  Basilidesauotedapocrvphal discourses, 

hands  (Scheuffgen,  **  Beitrftge  sur  (jesch.  des  grossen  which  he  attributed  to  Matthias.    These  three  writ- 

Schismas",  1889,  p.  91).  inp:  the  Gospel,  the  Traditions,  and  the  Apocm)hal 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned.  oonauH  SoimxB-  Discourses  were  identified  by  Zahn  (Gesch.  deS  N.  T. 

i5i^iijii^'rai^(TS^^  ^^^°'  ^^'  7^^>'  ^^*  Hamack  (Chron.  der  ahehrist. 

eOi^SjLorrw,  Siaai  uT^nhs  in  d^  PfaU  am  Auagmoe  dii  Litteratur,  597)  denies  this  identification.    Tischen- 

M.  A.  (1007),  4fi  aqq.;  Bukmveirzsdbb,  MaithAua  v,  K.,  dm-  dorf  ("Acta  apostolorum  apociypha",  Leipaig,  1851) 

iS!^J^^'£!^^  publishedafterTimo,1846,J'ActoAnc^ 

KinhmtUx.,  a.  v.  MaUhAua  wk  Krakau.  m  urbe  anthropophagarum  ",  which,  according  to  Lip- 

Thomas  Kennedy.  sius,  belonged  to  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 

ar.4^v.«»  iDw.f«««iw«.«.iM.     fl^w.Minr»T«»»n»  w*-^  This  apociypha  rclatcs  that  Mattliias  wout amoug  ths 

Mattbaw  WMtmfiiatar.    See  WBarMiNSTBB,  Mat-  cannibals  and,  being  cast  into  prison,  was  deUveiSl  by 

xuaw.  Andrew.  Needless  to  sin^,  the  entire  narrative  is  with- 

Matthiaai  Saint,  ApoaTLS. — ^The  Greek  Mar^tof,  out  historical  value.    Moreover,  it  should  be  remem- 

K  A  C  E,  or  MoMtat,  B*  D,  is  a  name  derived  from  bered  that,  in  the  apocryphal  writingSi  Matthew  and 

UarroBtatf  Heb.  Mattithiah,  signifying  *'gift  of  Jah-  BCatthias  have  sometimes  oeen  confounded, 
veh."    ILitthias  was  one  of  ^e  seventy  disciples  of  £•  Jacquikb. 

Jesus,  and  had  been  wit^  Him  from  H^  Matthias,  Gobpel  or.    See  Apocrypha. 

John  to  the  Ascension  (Acts,  i,  21,  22).    It  is  related 

(Acts,  i,  15-26)  that  in  the  days  following  the  Ascen-        Matibiaa  Oonriniis,  King  of  Hungaiy,  son  of  J^os 

don,  Peter  proposed  to  the  assembled  brethren,  who  Hun3rady    (see  Hunyady,   JXnob)   and    Elisabeth 

numbered  one  hundred  and  twenty,  that  they  cnoose  Ssilagvi    of   Horogssey,  was   born    at    Kolosavar, 

one  to  fill  the  place  of  the  traitor  Judas  in  the  Aposto-  23  Feb.,  1440;  d.  at  Vienna^  6  April,  1490.    In  the 

late.     Two  cusciples,  Joseph,  called  Barsabas,  and  house  of  his    father  he  received  along  with   his 

Matthias  were  selected,  and  lots  were  drawn,  with  the  brother  Ladislaus,  a  careful  education  under   the 

result  in  favour  of  ICatthias,  who  thus  became  asso-  supervision  of  Gregor  Sanocki^  who  taught  him  the 

ciated  with  the  eleven  Apostles.    Zeller  has  declared  humanities.    Johann  Vites,  Bishop  of  ^tMswardein 

this  narrative  unhistoric,  on  the  plea  that  the  Apostles  from  1445,  the  friend  of  Matthias's  father  when  a 

were  in  Galilee  after  the  death  of  Jesus.    As  a  matter  boy.  and  himself  an  enthusiastic  patron  and  promoter 

of  fact  they  did  return  to  Cralilee,  but  the  Acts  of  tiie  of  classical  studies,  had  a  decided  influence  on  his  edu- 

Apostlesclearlv  state  that  about  the  feast  of  Pentecost  cation.    The  chequered  career  of  his  father  likewise 

they  went  back  to  Jerusalem.  left  its  imprint  on  the  life  of  Matthias.    On  political 

All  further  information  concerning  the  life  and  grounds  he  was  betrothed  in  1455  to  Elisabeth,  the 

death  of  Matthias  is  vague  and  contradictorv.    Ac-  daughter  of  Count  Ulric  Csilley,  his  father's  deadly 

cording  to  Nicephorus  (Hist,  eccl.,  2,  40),  he  first  enemy,  with  the  aim  of  effecting  the  reconciliation  of 

preached  the  Gospel  in  Judea,  then  in  Ethiopia  (that  the  two  families.    The  early  death  of  Elisabeth  inter- 

is  to  say,  Cckhis),  and  was  crucified.   The  Syiiopsis  of  fered  with  this  plan,  and  after  the  death  of  JiUios 

Dorotlieus  contains  this  tradition:  Matthias  in  into-  Hunyady,  CsiUey's  emnity  was  directed  afpunst  the 

riore  .Ethiopia,  ubi  Hyssus  maris  portus  et  Phasis  sons.    At  the  instigation  of  Csilley  and  his  accom* 

fluvius  ost,  nominibus  barbaris  et  camivoris  pnedi-  plioes,  who  accused  Ladislaus  and  Matthias  Hunyady 

cavit  Evangelium.    Mortuus  est  autem  in  Seoasto-  of  A  conspiracy  against  King  Ladislaus  V,  both  were 

poli,  ibioue  prope  templum  Soils  sepultus  (Matthias  arrested,  Ladislaus  being  executed,  and  Matthias  bemg 

proachea  the  GK)spel  to  barbiuians  and  cannibals  in  taken  to  Vienna  to  the  court  of  the  king.    Later  he 

the  interior  of  Ethiopia,  at  the  harbour  of  the  sea  of  followed  the  king  to  Prague.     After  the  death  of  King 

Hyssus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Phasis.    He  died  at  Ladislaus  at  Prague,  Matthias  settled  down  at  the 

Sebastopolis,  and  was  buried  there,  near  the  Temple  court  of  the  Bohemian  king,  Geoiige  Podiebrad,  who 

of  ^e  Sun).    Still  another  tradition  tnRiwfa.ina  that  betrothed  him  to  his  daughter  Catharine.   On  23  Jan., 

Ifatthias  wa9  stoned  i^t  Jerusalem  by  the  Jews,  and  1458,  Matthias  was  prodaimed  King  of  Hungaiy  ^ 


67 


BIATTHXAB 


Buda,  his  tinole  Michael  Sxil^igyi  at  tlie  same  time  be- 
in^  appointed  governor  for  five  years.  Idatthias  soon 
freed  fximseif ,  nowever,  from,  the  regencjr  of  Ssil^lgyi, 
and  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands. 
At  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  he  had  to  contend 
with  a  movement  among  discontented  Hmi^^arians, 
who  offered  the  crown  to  the  Elmperor  Frederick  III, 
who  had  assmned  the  title  of  King  of  Hungary.  The 
quarrel  with  Frederick  lasted  till  1462,  when  an  agree- 
ment was  made  by  which,  amonj^  other  things,  it  was 
settled  that  if  Bfatthias  should  die  without  leaving  an 
heir,  Firederick  would  be  authorized  to  bear  the  title  of 
Ifin^  of  Hungary  as  long  as  he  lived.  At  the  same 
tinie  Frederick  adoptea  Matthias  as  his  son,  and 
pledged  himself  to  aeliver  up  the  Hungarian  crown 
which  he  had  in  his  possession.  The  treaty  was  con- 
firmed bythe  Hun- 
garian Keichstag 
and  Matthias  was 
crowned  king  in 

1463.  Not  long 
before  he  had 
married  Catha- 
rine, the  daugh- 
ter of  tnf 
Bohemian  king 
Podiebrad,  who, 
however,  died  at 
the  b^inning  of 

1464.  Relations 
with  the  Em- 
peror Frederick 
again  became 
strained;  politi- 
cal conditions 
and,  in  particu- 
lar, the  question 
of  the  Bohemian 
crown,  affected 
them  considera- 
bly. The  friction 
between  the  Holy 

See  and  King  Podiebrad  led  to  the  deposition  of  the  lat- 
ter, and  Matthias  was  now  called  upon  by  the  pope  to 
take  up  arms  against  the  deposed  king.    In  1468  came 
the  Bohemian  expedition  of  Bfatthias,  elected  kins  by 
the  Catholics  of  Bohemia.    The  war  continued  till  the 
death  of  Podiebrad  in  1471,  when  the  Bohemians,  de- 
feating Matthias,  chose  Wladislaw,  son  of  C^imir, 
Kinf  of  Poland,  as  king.    The  years  up  to  1474  were 
marked  by  indecisive  battles  with  the  Bohemian  king 
and    with   the  Em|>eror  Frederick.    An  armistice 
caused  a  brief  cessation  of  hostilities,  but  from  1476 
relations  with  the  Emperor  Frederick  ^w  continu- 
ally more  strained.     In  1477  Matthias,  invading  Aus- 
tria, besieged  Vienna.    Peace  was  effected  between 
Matthias  and  Frederick  by.  the  intervention  of  the 
papal  legate  in  1477,  but  war  soon  broke  out  again, 
and  in  1485  Matthias  took  Vienna.     In  the  war  with 
the  Emperor  Frederick,  Matthias  had  in  view  the  Ro- 
man crown.    In  this  connexion  he  was  led  not  merely 
by  the  aim  of  securing  for  Hungary  a  leading  position 
in  the  West  of  Europe,  but  also  by  the  design  to  unite 
^e  poweni  of  Europe  in  a  crusacCe  against  the  Turks. 
He  was  obliged,  however,  to  abandon  this  scheme. 
Equally  fruitless  was  the  plan  of  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks;  nevertheless  he  managed  to  fix  a  limit  to  the 
advance  of  the  Turks,  and  to  strengthen  the  suprem- 
acy of  Huncarv  over  Bosnia.    In  1463  Bosnia  fell 
uain  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.    The  victory  of 
luitthias  over  the  Turks  in  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Tran- 
sylvania resulted  in  1483  in  a  truce  with  the  Sul- 
tan Bajaxet.    Matthias's  relations  with  the  Catholic 
Church  were  good  till  the  year  1471 ;  but  the  second 
part  of  his  reign  was  marked  by  a  series  of  most  serious 
blunders  and  acts  of  violence.    In  spite  of  legal  enact- 
ments, he  gave  biflhoprics  to  foreigners,  and  rewarded 


Matthias  Cobtocus 
Kinaof  Hungary,  1468-1490 


political  services  with  gifts  of  church  property,  widdk 
ne  dealt  with  as  thou^  it  were  the  property  of  the 
state.  His  relations  with  the  Holy  See  were  at  first 
decidedljy  cordial,  but  later  there  was  danger  of  a  rup- 
ture, which  was  happily  avoided.  Under  Matthias  the 
humanities  made  their  entry  into  Hungary.  His  li- 
brary^  in  Buda,  the  BibUomeea  Ccrvintanaf  wins  just 
admiration  even  to-day  by  virtue  of  the  remnants  of  it 
scattered  over  Europe.  Diiring  his  reign  the  first 
printing  press  in  Hungaiy  was  established,  l^t  at 
Buda,  the  first  known  production  of  which  is  the 
"  Chronicle  of  Buda  ",  printed  in  1473.  The  arts,  too, 
foimd  in  Bfatthias  a  generous  Miecenas.  Matthias  in- 
troduced reforms  in  the  army,  in  finance,  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  courts  and  the  law.  The  reor- 
ganisation of  militaiy  affairs  was  based  on  the  prind- 
gle  of  a  standing  army.  With  this  body,  the  so-odled 
lack  troops,  he  defeated  the  Turks  and  the  Hussite 
troops  of  Giskra,  which  were  laying  waste  Upper  Hun- 
gary. In  financial  affairs,  a  reform  in  the  mode  of 
taxation  was  introduced,  while  his  enactments  in  judi* 
cial  affairs  earned  for  him  among  the  people  the  title 
of  "The  Just".  In  1476  he  married  Beatrice,  the 
daughter  of  the  Kin^  of  Naples,  but  the  union  was 
childless.  His  exertions  to  secure  the  throne  for  his 
illegitimate  son,  Johann  Corvinus,  were  rendered  fu- 
tile b3^  the  opposition  of  Hun^^ary  and  the  plotting  of 
Beatrice.  Matthias  was  buned  at  Si^kes-Feh^rvfr 
(Btuhlweissenburg) . 

Tblekx.  a  Hunyadyak  kora  MaTyaroruAQon  (Pesth,  1852), 
tn  Hungarian :  i.  e.  T  le  Age  of  the  Hnnyadys  in  Husgaiy. 
ft  vQJb.:  CB\Mia,MaovaroraBdg  lurtinelifUdraiga  a  Uunyat^fai 
kordban  (Budapest,  1890),  i.  e.  The  fiListorical  GeograiJiy  of 
Hungary  in  the  Age  of  the  H  jnyadye,  3  vob.  have  appeared; 
Frakn6i,  a  Hunyadyak  it  JoQeUok  kora  ijUO-'dS  (Budapeet, 
1896),  Hungarian :  L  e.  The  Age  of  the  Hunyaoys  and  Jaxelions; 
Ii)B^  MathioB  ComntM,  K&nio  von  Ungam  (Frnbura  un  Br., 
1891).  For  information  as  to  church  conditions  in  Hungaiy 
see  the  biblioscraphy  of  Hunoart.  For  Mattlsias's  relations 
with  the  Holy  See,  see  the  Latin  introduction  to  MonvmefUa 
Vatioana  Hunqarica:  Matkia  Corvini  Hvngaria  regit  tpittota  ad 
Romanot  ponUAcet  data  dabeit  aceattm  (Budapest,  1891).  For 
the  foreign  politics  of  Matthias  see  Monumenta  Hvngarim  Hit' 
toriea,  Acta  txiera,  tiSS-GO  (Budapert,  1875);  MditAt  Kirdk/ 
leveUi  KQlOpyi  onidUf  (Budapert,  1803-95),  L  e.  Lettere  of 
Kin^  Matthias,  foreign  section,  2  vols.  For  infonnation  con- 
eemms  Joannes  Corvinus  see  ScBdNHXRR,  Corvin  Jdnot  (Buda- 
pest, 1894) ;  concerning  Queen  Beatrice  see  Bsbssvzgit,  Btatris 
kirdkffU  (Budapest,  1908).  . 

A.  AldAst. 

Hatthiaa  of  Neubnrg  or  Nbuenbttbo  (NsoBuifr- 
OBNSis),  chronicler^  b.  towards  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  possibly  at  Neuburg,  in  Baden;  d. 
between  1364  ^nd  1370,  probably  at  Strasburg,  in 
Alsace.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Bologna,  and 
later  received  minor  orders^  but  never  became  a  priest. 
In  1327  we  meet  him  as  sohdtor  of  the  episcopal  court 
at  Basle,  and  shortlv  after,  while  clerk  to  Bi^op 
Berthold  von  Buchecke.  holoing  a  similar  position  in 
Strasburg.  At  present  ne  is  generally  considered  the 
author  ofa  Latm  chronicle  from  1243  to  1350,  and  of 
its  first  continuation  from  1350  to  1355.  Later,  three 
other  writers  carried  on  the  work  to  1368,  1374,  and 
1378  respectively.  It  is  an  important  contribution  to 
Alsatian  and  Habsburg  histoiy  and  for  the  times  in 
which  Matthias  lived;  indeed,  the  part  covering  the 
period  between  1346  and  1350  is  one  of  the  best  au- 
thorities, not  only  for  the  history  of  his  own  country, 
but  for  that  of  the  entire  empire.  It  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  different  writers,  among  them  to  the  Speyer 
notary,  Jacob  of  Mains  (cf.  wichert.  *' Jacob  von 
Mains'*,  K6nigsberg,  1881),  also  to  Albert  of  Stras- 
burg, especially  by  earlier  editors,  while  those  ol 
later  times  attribute  it  to  Matthias  of  Neuburg. 
For  the  voluminous  literature  on  this  controversy  see 
Potthast,  "Bibliotheca  Kin.  Med.  iEvi."  (Berlin, 
1896).  Among  the  editions  may  be  mentioned: 
''Albert!  Argentinensis  Chronic!  fragmentum",  an 
appendix  to  Cuspinian's  work  "  De  consulibus  Roman- 
orum  commentarii"  (Basle,  1553),  667-710,  veijr 
much  abridged;  G.  Studer,  "ICatthue  Neoburgenais 


BIATUBINB  68 

ehronica  cum  continuatioiieet  vita  Berchtold)'';'' Die  offertory.    Hie  "Sacramentary"  of  Pope  Gelaanv 

Chronik  des  Matthias  von  Neuenburg",  from  the  contains  an  Ordo    agerUibua   publioam  pcenilenUam 

Berne  and  Strasburg  manuscripts  (Berne,  1866);  A.  (Muratori,  "Liturgia  romana  vetus",  I,  548^551). 

Httber,   "Mathis  Neuwenburgensis  Cronica,    1273-  Olei  exoreizati  amfectio. — ^In  the  fifUh  century  the 

1350"  in  Bdhmer,  "Pontes  rerum  Germanicarum",  custom  was  established  of  consecrating  on  Holy  "niurs- 

rv  (Stutt^ut,  1868),  149-276;    "Continuationes".  day  all  the  chrism  necessary  for  the  anointing  of  the 

276-297.    It  has  also  been  edited  from  a  Vienna  and  newly  be^iied.    The  "Comes  Hi^onymi ",  Uie  Gre- 

a  Vatican  manuscript  in  "  Abhandlungen  der  Gesell-  gorian  and  Gelasian  sacramentaries  and  the  "  BiisBa 

schaft  der  Wissenschaften ",  zxxvii-viii  (G6ttingen,  ambroeiana"  of  Pamelius,  all  agree  upon  the  confec- 

1891-2),  and  translated  into  German  by  Grandaur  tion  of  the  chrism  on  that  day,  as  does  also  the  "  CMo 

(Leipzig,  1892).  romanus  I". 

PoTTMT,  B4>Uotkeoa  (Bcriin.  1896),  780  sq.;  Wdi^ahp.  Anniverwrium  EtuAarutuB.^The  nocturnal  ode- 

jb^ctioa  to  the  above-meatioiied  Qennan  venum.  pp.  Oration  and  the  double  obUtion  eariy  became  the  ob- 

Patricius  Schi«aqkb.  jc^  of  increasing  disfavour,  until  in  692  the  Council 

„  ^ -         rt     ,«_                   ^                          *  of  TruDo  promulgated  a  formal  prohibition.    TheEu- 

Haturiiu.    See  Trinitabian  Ordbb.  charistic  celebration  then  took  place  in  the  morning, 

Mati,  Nicholas  C.    See  Dbnvbb,  Diocbsb  or.  and  ttie  bishop  reserved  a  part  of  the  sacred  species 

for  the  communion  of  the  morrow,  Mtssa  ffrcesanctv- 

Haondy  Thunday. — ^The  feast  of  Maundy   (or  ficalorum    (Muratori,  "Liturs.  ram.  Vetus' ,  II,  993). 

Holy)  Thursdav  solemnly  commemorates  the  insti-  Other  Observances, — On  Holy  Thursday  the  ringing 

tution  of  the  Eucharist  and  is  the  oldest  of  the  ob-  of  bells  ceases,  the  altar  is  stripped  after  vespers,  ana 

servances  peculiar  to  Holy  Week.    In  Rome  various  the  night  office  is  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Tene- 

accessory  ceremonies  were  early  added  to  this  com-  brsB. 

memoration,  namel^r  the  consecration  of  the  holy  oils  H.  Lbclebcq. 
and  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  ceremonies  ob- 
viously practical  in  character  and  readily  explained  by  MannoniT,  AuousTB-FliANpois,  Hellenist  and  exe- 
the  proximity  of  the  Christian  Easter  and  the  neces-  sete,  b.  at  Champsecret,  Ome,  France,  30  Oct.,  1811; 
sity  of  preparing  for  it.  Hol3r  Thursday  could  not  d.  at  S^s,  Ome,  17  Nov.,  1898.  He  made  brilliant 
but  be  a  day  of  liturgical  reimion  since,  in  the  cycle  classical  studies  at  the  preparatory  seminarv  at  S6ex. 
of  movable  feasts,  it  brings  around  the  anniversary  of  to  which  institution  he  returned  after  his  theological 
the  institution  of  the  Liturgy.  On  that  dav,  whilst  course,  and  where  he  spent  the  whole  of  his  long 
thepreparationof  candidates  was  beine  completed,  the  priestly  career.  Until  1852,  he  taught  the  classics 
Chimsh  celebrated  the  Missa  chrismalis  of  which  we  with  great  success,  and  then  became  professor  of  rhet- 
have  already  described  the  rite  (see  Holt  Oiub)  and,  oric,  a  position  which  he  occupied  for  twenty-two 
moreover,  proceeded  to  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  years.  During  this  period,  keeping  abreast  of  the 
In  Rome  ever3rthine  was  carried  on  in  dajrlight,  progress  of  HeUenistic  studies  in  France  and  Germany, 
whereas  in  Africa  on  Holy  Thursday  the  Eucharist  was  he  composed,  published,  and  revised  those  of  his  works 
celebrated  after  the  evenmg  meal,  in  view  of  more  exact  (*'Grammaire  de  la  Lanffue  Grecoue";  "Chrestoma- 
conformity  with  the  circumstances  of  the  Last  Sup-  thie"  etc.)  which  proved  him  to  be  one  of  the  best 
pe;J  Canon  xxix  of  the  Council  of  Carthage  dispenses  Greek  scholars  of  his  day.  Towards  1866,  Maunouiy 
the  faithful  from  fast  before  communion  on  Holy  began  his  work  as  a  commentator  of  Holy  Writ,  by 
Thursday,  because,  on  that  day,  it  was  customary  to  treating  some  sections  of  the  CSospel  in  the  "  Semaine 
take  a  liath,  and  the  bath  and  fast  were  considered  Catholique^'of  his  native  diocese;  out  it  was  only  after 
incompatible.  St.  Augustine,  too,  speaks  of  this  1875,  tluit  he  save  himself  fully  to  the  pursuit  of  Bibli- 
custom  (Ep.  cxviii  ad  Januarium,  n.  7);  he  even  cal  studies.  In  1877,. he  became  canon  of  the  cathe- 
sajrs  that,  as  certain  persons  did  not  fast  on  that  dral  of  S^^;  and  the  fc^owing  year,  he  began  to  pub- 
day,  the  oblation  was  made  twice,  morning  and  even-  lish  his  conmientaries  on  all  the  Epistles  of  the  Kew 
ing,  and  in  this  way  those  who  did  not  observe  the  Testament. 

fast  could  partake  of  the  Eucharist  after  the  mom-  These  commentaries  appeared  in  five  volumes,  as 

ing  meal,  wnilst  those  who  fasted  awaited  the  evening  follows :  (1 )  *'  Com.  sur  L'Epltie  aux  Remains  "  (Paris, 

repast.  1878);  (2)  *'Com.  sur  les  aeux  Epttres  aux  Corinthi- 

Holy  Thursday  was  taken  up  with  a  succession  of  ens"  (Paris,  1879);  (3)  'Tom.  sur  les  Epttres  aux  Ga- 

oeremonies  of  a  jo^ul  character:  the  baptism  of  neo-  lates,  aux  Eph^siens,  aux  Phillippiens,  aux  Coloasiens, 

phytes,  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  the  consecra-  et  aux  Thessaloniciens"  (Paris,  1880);  (4)  *Xoni.  sur 

tion  of  the  holy  oils,  the Vashing  of  the  feet,  and  the  les  Epttres  h  Timoth4e,  k  Tite,  k  Philemon,  aux  H4- 

commemoration  of  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  and,  be-  breux'^  (Paris,  1882);  (5)  "Com.  sur  les  Epttres  Catho- 

cause  of  all  these  ceremonies,  the  day  received  different  liques  de  St.  Jacques,  St.  Pierre,  St.  Jean  et  St.  Jude  " 

names,  all  of  which  allude  to  one  or  another  of  its  (Paris,  1888).     In  explaining  the  Sacred  Text  he  made 

solemnities.  an  excellent  use  of  his  great  familiarity  with  Greek 

Reddilio  syniboli  was  so  called  because,  before  being  grammar  and  authors,  availed  himself  chiefly  of  the 

admitted  to  baptism,  the  catechumens  had  to  recite  commentaries  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret, 

the  creed  from  memory,  either  in  presence  of  the  and  always  remained  an  enlightened  and  safe  theolo- 

bishop  or  his  representative.  gian.     In  1894,  he  publisheahis  "Com.  in  Psalmos" 

Peat^mum  (washing  of  the  feet),  traces  of  which  (2  vols.,  Paris), a  Latin  work,  written  with  elegance,  al- 

are  foimd  in  the  most  ancient  rites,  occurred  in  many  most  exclusively  on  the  basis  of  the  Vulgate  and  the 

churches  on  Holy  Thursday,  the  capUilavium  (wash-  Septuagint.     His  onty  coutribution  to  apologetics  is  a 

ing  of  the  head)  having  taken  place  on  Palm  Sunday  volume  entitled  "Souses  d'Automne,  ou  la  Religion 

(St.  Augustine,  "Ep.  cxviii,  cxix*',  c,  18).  prouv6e  aux  gens  du  monde "  (Paris,  1887). 

Exomologesia,  and  reconciliation  of  penitents:  the  Hurtbr,  NomencWor;  Via.,  Dirt.  detoBi6Z«.B.  t. 

letter  of  Pope  Innocent  I  to  Decentius  of  Gubbio,  tes-  Francis  E.  Gigot. 
tifies  that  in  Rome  it  was  customary  "  quinta  feria  ante 

Pascha"  to  absolve  penitents  from  their  mortal  and  Maurice,  Saint,  leader  {primieeritui)  of  the  Theban 

venial  sins,  except  in  cases  of  serious  illness  which  kept '  Legion,  massacred  at  Agaunum,  about  287  (286,  297, 

them  away  from  church  (Labbe,  "Concilia".  II,  col.  302,  303),  by  order  of  Maximian  Herculius.    Feast, 

1247;  St.  Ambrose,  "Ep.  xxxiii  ad  Marcellinam").  22  Sept.    The  legend  (Acta  SS.,  VI,  Sept.,  308,  895) 

The  penitents  heard  the  Missa  pro  reconcUiatione  relates  that  the  legion,  composed  entirely  of  Chris- 

prniitenHum,  and  absolution  was  given  them  before  the  tians,  had  been  called  from  Africa  to  suppress  a  revolt 


HAVRICB 


UitmiSTB 


ol  the  BagiuidB  in  Gaul.  The  soldiers  were  ordered  to  lAusom  12,000  Roman  soldiers  talcen  prisorters  b;  the 

sacrifice  to  the  gods  in  thanksgiving  but  refused.  Avars,  snd  they  were  all  murdered.     Further  harass- 

Every  tenth  was  then  killed.    Another  order  to  sacri-  ing  regulations  made  for  the  army  with  a  view  to  more 

fice  and  anotlffir  refusal  caused  a  second  decimatioD  economycausedarevoltthat becamearevolution.  In 

and  then  a  general  massacre,     (On  the  value  of  the  602  the  soldiers  drove  away  their  officers,  made  a  cer- 

legend,  etc.,  see  Agauimm  and  Theban  Ugion.)     St.  tain  centurion,  Phocas,  their  leader  and  marched  on 

Maurice   ia   represented   as  a  knight   in  full  armour  Constantinople.     Maurice,  finding  that  he  could  not 

(sometimes  as  a  Moor),  bearing  a  standard  and  a  organize  a  resistance,  fled  across  the  Bosporus  with  his 

palm;    in  Italian  paintings  with  a  r^  cross  on  his  family.     He  was  overtaken  at  Chalceaon  and  mur- 

Dreast,  which  is  Ibe  badge  of  the  Sardinian  Order  of  deretf  with   his   five   sons.     Phocas   then  began  his 

St.  Haurice.    Many  plao^  in  Switserland,  Piedmont,  tyrannical  reign  (602-610). 

Fianoe,  and  Germany  have  chosen  him  as  celestial  In  Church  history  Maurice  has  some  importance 
patroD,  aa  have  also  the  dyers,  clothmakers,  aoldiera,  through  his  relations  with  Gregory  1  (S90-604).  As 
-■  — '"- J -->- —    *>-  soon  as  Gregory  was  elected. 


swordamiths,  and  others.  He 
ia  invoked  against  gout, 
cramps,  etc. 

Son  Cbevauih,  Bio-BiH.,  (.  v.; 

BiMnt.  JaXtbxak,  XIII,  782. 

Francis  Merskiun. 
Haniic*  (Hauricius, 
Havplxim),  Roman  Emperor, 
b.  in  539;  d.  in  Nov..  602. 
He  sprang  from  an  old 
Roman  (Latin)  family  set- 
tled in  Cappadocia,  and 
began  hia  career  aa  a  soldier. 
Under  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
II  (578-682)  he  was  made 
commander  of  a  new  legion 
lexned  from  allied  barbarians, 
with  which  he  did  good  ser- 
vice against  the  PerBians. 
ftiien    he    returned    trium- 

Ehant  to  Constantinople,  Ti- 
erius  gave  him  bis  daughter 
Conatantina  in  marriage  and 
appointed  him  hia  successor 
(578).  Almost  immediately 
afterwards  (Theopbylact, 
inlra,  aaya  the  next  day) 
Tiberius  died  and  Maurice 
succeeded  peaceably.  At  hia 
accession  he  found  that 
through  the  reckless  extrava- 
gance of  his  predecessor  the 
exchequer  was  empty  and  the 
State  bankrupt.  Inorderto 
remedy  this  Maurice  estab- 
lished the  expensea  of  the 
court  on  a  basis  of  strict 
economy.    He  gained  a  repu- 


he  wrote  to  the  emperor  beg- 
ging him  to  annul  the  election. 
The  fact  hasoften  been  quoted 
as  showing  Gregory's  accept- 
,  ance  of  an  imperial  right  cS 
veto.  Later  the  ^pe's  or- 
ganisation of  resistance 
against  the  Lombards  was 
very  displeasing  to  the  em- 
peror, though  the  goverOr 
ment  at  Constantinople  did 
nothing  to  protect  Italy. 
Further  trouble  was  caused 
by  the  tyranny  of  the  im- 
perial exarch  at  Ravenna, 
Romanua.  Against  this  pe> 
son  the  pope  took  the  Itahana 
under  his  protection.  On 
the  other  hand  the  exarch 
and  the  emperor  protected 
the  bishopa  m  the  North  of 
Italy  who  still  kept  t 


Three  Chapters  quarrel  (Pope 
■  Vigilius,  640-555).  The  b»- 
sumptionofthetitleof 
"(Ecumenical  patriarch"  by 
John  IV  of  Constantinople 
(see  John  the  Faster) 
caused  more  friction.  All 
this  explains  St.  Gregory's 
imfrienoty  feeling  towards 
Maurice;  and  it  alao  helps  to 
explain  his  ready  and  friendly 
recognition  oF  Phocas  which 
has  been  alleged  by  some  to 
be  a  blot  ia  the  great  pope'a 


t«tionforparsimonythatmadehimveryunpopularand     career.     But  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  pope  was 
ledcventuallytohiafall.    The  twenty  years  of  his  reign     misinformed  and  not  placed  in  full  possession  of  all 


the  circumstances  attending  the   change  of  govern- 

'  -"-  the  distant  East. 

HiH.  Eal.,  VI:    Theofhtlactub.  HiHoria.  tA. 
1887);    Adauee,  Brilrt^ 


DE  Boohs  (Lelpii«,  1887);    Adauee,  BtUraat  mr  OtKh.  i 

Koiiwr.  MaiiriciiulGnu,  l&Bl);  OlB»OH,D««n.i™ifaIl,  iL  . 

ilvi:  ed.  BuBT.  V  (London,  ISOS).  19-22,  67-03;  Burt,  Hulon/ 


of  lAe  LatiT  Roman  Empii 


do  not  in  any  way  stand  out  conspicuously  from  . 
Byiantine  history.  The  forces  at  work  since  Justin- 
ian, or  even  Constantine,  continued  the  gradual  decay 
of  the  Empire  under  Maurice,  as  under  Tiberius  hia 
predecesaor  and  Phocas  hia  succeasor.  For  the  Grst 
ten  years  the'  long  war  with  the  Persians  continued; 
then  a  revolution  among  the  enemy  brought  a  respite 
and  the  Roman  Emperor  was  invoked  by  Chosroca  11  ^■™„ 
to  restore  him  to  his  throne.  Unfortunately  Maurice  KmoBTti 
was  not  clever  enough  to  draw  any  profit  for  the  Em- 
pire from  this  situation.  The  Avars  and  Slava  oon- 
tinued  their  invasion  of  the  northern  provinces.  The  Hanrists,  The,  a  congregation  of  Benedictine 
SlavB  penetrated  even  to  the  Peloponnesua.  The  monks  in  France,  whose  history  extends  from  I6I8- 
Lombards  ravaged  Italy  with  impunity.  As  the  Em-  1818.  It  liegan  as  an  oflahoot  from  the  famous  n>- 
pire  could  do  nothing  to  protect  the  Italians,  they  in-     formed  Congregation  of  St-Varmes.    The  reform  had 


Hauiienae. 


B  Saint-Jban  I 


See  Lazarus, 


I  Mauri  ENNB. 


vited  the  Franks  to  their  help  (584).  This  first 
sion  of  Italy  by  the  Franks  began  the  process  that  was 
to  end  in  the  separation  of  all  the  West  from  the  old 
Empire  and  the  entablinhment  of  the  rival  line  of  Em- 

eerors  with  Charles  the  Great  (800).     Maurice  had  to 
uy  off  the  Avars  with  a  heavy  bribe  that  further  re- 


spread  from  Lorraine  into  France  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Dom  Laurent  Knard,  Prior  of  the  Coll^  de 
Cluny  in  Paris,  who  inaugurated  the  reform  in  his  own 
college.  Thence  it  spread  to  St-Augustin  dc  Limoges, 
to  Nouaille,  to  St^Faron  de  Meaui,  to  Jumi^ea,and 
''  the  BlanCB-Mantesux  in  Paris.     '     •"■" 


__, ,  ._   .   _ a  genenU 

duced  hia  scanty  resources  and  made  economy  still  ch^ter  of  the  Congregation  of  St-Vannes  was  held  at 

more  imperative.     The  emperor  became  more  and  St^Mansuet  de  Toul,  whereat  it  was  decided  that  an 

iiore  unpopular.     In  599  he  could  not  or  would  not  independent  congregation  shotdd  be  erected  for  the 


IIAtmttTft  70  ICAVatSTS 

tetbrmed  houses  in  France,  having  its  superior  residing  lished  the  Congregation  of  France  under  the  govern* 

within  that  kingdom.   This  proposal  was  supported  by  anoe  of  the  Abbey  of  Solesmes,  the  new  congregation 

Louis  XIII  as  well  as  by  Cardinals  de  Rets  and  Riche-  was  declared  the  successor  of  all  the  former  congresa- 

lieu;  letters  patent  were  granted  by  the  kin^,  and  the  tions  of  French  Benedictines,  including  that  of  ot- 

new  or^nization  was  named  the  Congregation  of  St-  Maur. 

Maur  in  order  to  obviate  anv  rivah^  oetween  its  Constitution. — ^The  early  Maurists,  like  the  Con* 
component  houses.  It  was  formally  approved  by  pegation  of  St-Vannes  from  which  ^ey  sprang, 
Pope  Gregory  XV  on  17  May,  1621,  an  approval  that  imitated  the  constitution  of  the  reformed  Congrega* 
was  confirmed  by  Urban  'VlII  six  years  later.  The  tion  of  Monte  Cassino.  But  before  many  years  ma 
reform  was  welcomed  by  many  of  great  influence  at  need  of  new  regulations  more  suitable  to  France  was 
the  Court  as  well  as  by  some  of  the  greater  monastic  recognised  and  Dom  Gr^goire  Tarisse,  the  first  Supe- 
houses  in  France.  Already^  under  the  first  president  rior-General,  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  drsLwrnf^ 
of  the  congregation,  Dom  Martin  Tesni^re  (1618-21),  them  up.  Dom  Maur  Dupont,  who  was  elected  presi- 
it  had  included  about  a  dosenffreat  houses.  By  1630  dent  in  1627,  had  already  made  an  attempt  to 
the  congre^tion  was  divideoT  into  three  provinces,  accomplish  this;  but  the  Chapter  of  1630  appointed  a 
and,  under  Dom  Gr6^ire  Tarisse,  the  first  Superior-  oommiasion,  of  which  Dom  Tarisse  was  the  cnief  mem- 
General  (1630-48),  it  included  over  80  houses.  Before  ber^  to  reconstruct  the  whole  work.  The  result  of 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy  the  number  had  their  labours  was  first  submitted  to  Dom  Athanase  de 
risen  to  over  180  monasteries,  the  congregations  being  Mongin  in  1633,  then  again  to  Dom  Tarisse  and  three 
divided  into  six  provinces:  France,  Normandy,  Brit-  others  in  1639,  and  was  finally  confirmed  by  the  Gen- 
tany.  Burgundy,  Chesal-Benott,  and  Gascony.  eral  Chapter  of  1645.    Under  these  constitutions  the 

In  its  earlier  years,  however,  the  new  congr^ation  president  (now  styled  "superior-generar*)  and  the 

was  forced,  by  Caroinal  RicheUeu,  into  an  alliance  priors  of  the  commendatory  houses  of  the  congrega- 

with  the  Congregation  of  Cluny.    Richelieu  desired  an  tion  were  to  be  elected  every  three  years.    They  were 

amalgamation  of  all  the  Benedictines  in  France  and  eli^ble  for  re-election.     The  superior-general  was  to 

even  succeeded  in  bringing  into  existence,  in  1634,  an  reside  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain-des-Pr^s  and  was 

organisation  that  was  called  the  "Congr^tion  of  St.  to  be  subject  only  to  the  general  chapter,  which  met 

Benedict"  or  "of  Cluny  and  St-Maur".   This  arrange-  every  three  years.    With  him,  however,  were  asso- 

ment,  however,  was  short-lived,  and  the  two  congre-  ciated  two  "assistants"  and  six  "visitors",  one  for 

gations  were  separated  bjr  Urban  VIII  in  1644.    I%m  each  province.   These  also  resided  at  St-Gemudn-des- 

that  date  the  (Jonf;r^gation  of  St-Maur  grew  steadily  Pr^s,  were  elected  by  the  general  chapter  every  three 

both  in  extent  and  m  influence.   Although  the  twenty-  years,  and  constituted,  with  the  superior-general,  the 

one  superior-generals  who  succeeded  Dom  Tarisse  executive  council  of  the  congregation.    Besides  these 

steadily  resisted  all  attempts  to  establish  the  congre-  officials,  the  genenJ  chapter  was  composed  of  three 

gationoeyond  the  borders  of  France,  yet  its  influence  priors  and  three  conventuals  from  each  province, 

was  widespread.    In  several  of  its  houses  schools  were  Every  three  years,  there  were  chosen  from  its  ranks 

conductea  for  the  sons  of  noble  families,  and  education  nine  "  definitors  "  who  appointed  the  six  visitors,  the 

was  provided  gratuitously  at  St-Martin  de  Vertou  for  heads  of  all  the  houses  that  possessed  no  regular  abbot, 

those  who  had  become  poor.    But  from  the  banning  the  novice-masters,  the  procurator  in  curiaf  the  preach- 

the  Maurists  refused  to  admit  houses  of  nuns  into  the  ers,  professors,  ete.,  of  the  congregation.    Each  prov- 

concregation,  liie  only  exception  being  the  Abbey  of  ince  also  possessed  ite  provincial  chapter,  which  was 

CheUes,  where,  through  Richelieu's  influence,  a  house  presided  over  by  the  visitor,  and  consisted  of  the  priors 

was  esteblii^ed  with  six  monks  to  act  as  confessors  and  one  elected  representative  from  each  house.    In 

to  the  nims.  each  province  there  were  to  be  two  novitiates.    Those 

The  congregation  soon  attracted  to  its  ranks  manv  who  desired  to  embrace  the  monastic  state  spent  one 

of  the  most  learned  scholars  of  the  period,  and  though  year  as  "postulants",  a  second  as  "novices",  and 

its  greatest  glory  undoubtedly  lies  m  the  seventeenth  then,  when  they  had  completed  the  five  years'  course 

century,  yet,  tbroughout  the  eighteenth  century  also,  of  philosophy  and  theology,  spent  a  "  year  of  recolleo- 

itcontmuedto  produce  w6rks whose  solidity  and  crit-  tion"  before  they  were  admitted  to  the  priesthood, 

ical  value  still  render  them  indispensable  to  modem  The  discipline  was  marked  by  a  return  to  the  strict  rule 

students.    It  is  true  that  the  Mauriste  were  not  free  of  St.  Benedict.    All  laboured  with  their  hands,  all 

from  the  infiltration  of  Jansenist  ideas,  and  that  the  abstained  from  flesh-meat,  all  embraced  regular  pov- 

work  of  some  of  ite  most  learned  sons  was  hampered  erty;  the  Divine  Office  was  recited  at  the  canonical 

and  coloured  by  the  fashionable  heresy  and  by  the  hours  with  great  solemnity,  silence  was  observed  for 

efforte   of  ecclesiastical   superiors  to   eradicate   it.  many  hours,  and  there  were  regular  times  for  private 

Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  also,  there  prayer  and  meditation.    And  this  discipline  was  uni- 

had  crept  into  at  least  the  central  house,  St-Germain-  form  throughout  every  house  of  the  congregation. 

des-Pi^s,  a  desire  for  some  relaxation  of  the  strict  None  were  dispensed  from  its  strict  observance  save 

reffularitv  that  had  been  the  mark  of  the  congregation ;  the  sick  and  the  infirm.    Until  the  movement  towards 

a  desire  that  was  vigorously  opposed  by  other  houses,  relaxation  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy,  the 

And,  tkouffh  there  is  reason  to  oelieve  that  the  laxity  l^uriste  were  as  renowned  for  the  austerity  of  their 

was  much  less  serious  than  it  was  represented  to  be  by  observance  as  for  the  splendour  of  their  intellectual 

the  rigoriste,  the  dissensions  caused  therebyand  by  the  achievemente. 

taint  of  Jansenism  had  weakened  the  congregation        To  the  great  body  of  studento,  indeed,  the  Maurists 

and  lowered  it  in  public  esteem  when  the  crash  of  the  are  best  Imown  by  their  services  to  ecclesiastical  and 

Revolution  came.   Yet^  right  up  to  the  suppression  literary  history,  to  patrology,  to  Biblical  studies,  to 

of  the  religious  orders  m  1790,  the  Mauriste  worked  diplomatics,    to   chronology   and    to   liturQr.    The 

steadily  at  liieir  great  undertalungs,  and  some  of  their  names  of  DD.  Luc  d'Acher]^,  Jean  Mabillon/Thiernr, 

gublications  were,  by  general  consent,  carried  on  by  Ruinart,  Francois  Lami,  Pierre  Coustant,  Denys  de 

earned  Academies  after  the  disturbance  of  the  Revo-  Sainte-Marthe,  Edmond  Martene,  Bexiiard  de  Mont- 

lution  had  passed.    In  1817  some  of  the  survivors  of  fauoon,  Maur  Francois  Dantine,  Antoine  Rivet  de  la 

those  who  nad  been  driven  from  France  in  1790  re-  Grange  and  Martin  Bouauet  recall  some  of  the  most 

turned,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  con-  scholarly  works  ever  produced.    To  these  and  to  their 

gregation.    The  project,  however,  did  not  meet  with  confreres  we  are  indebted  for  critical  and  still  India- 

the  approbation  of  the  Holy  See  and  the  congregation  pensable  editions  of  the  great  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers, 

ceased  to  exist.    The  last  surviving  membsr,  Dom  tor  the  history  of  the  Benedictine  Order  and  the  lives 

Brial,  died  in  1833.  In  1837,  when  Gregory  XVIestab-  of  ite  sainte,  for  the  ''Gallia  Christiana"  and  the 


lUUBISTS  71  lUUBISTS 

•^HistcttiB  litt^niiB  de  la  France."  for  the  "De  re  Voy,  St-Laumer-de-Blois,  Ste-Trinit^-de-VendOme.'^ 

Diplomatica"  and  ^L'ait  de  v^riner  les  dates",  for  Diocese  of  Chalon-sur-Saone:  St-Pierre. — ^Diocese  of 

"L'antiquit^    expliqude    et    representee"  and  the  Dijon: St-Benigne-de-Dn on, St-Seine-1'Abbaye. — Dio- 

"PalseographiaGneca",forthe''Kecueilde6hi8torien8  cese  of  Langres:  Bdze,  Molesmes,  Molosme,  Moutier- 

des  Gaules  ,  the  "  Vetenim  scriptonim  amplissima  col-  Saint-Jean,  St^Michel-de-Tonnerre. — ^Diocese  of   Le 

lectio",  the ''Thesaurus  Anecaotorum'',tne"Spidle-  Mans:   St-Calais. — ^Diocese  of  Lyozvs;  Ambronay. — 

gi\im  vetenim  scriptonim "y  the  "Museum  Italicum",  Diocese  of  Orleans:  Bonne-Nouvelle,  St-Benott-sux^ 

the  *' Voyage  litteraire",  and  numerous  other  works  Loire. — Diocese    of    Sens:    Ferri^res.  St-Pienne-de- 

that  are  the  foundation  of   modem  historical  and  Melun,St-Pierre-le-Vif-de-Sens,Ste-Goiombe-lds-Sen8, 
liturgical  studies.    For  nearly  two  centuries  the  neat        (5)  Province  of  Ghezal-Benott. — ^Diocese  of  Bourges: 

works  that  were  the  result  m  the  foresight  and  high  Che«d-Benott,     St-Benott-du-Sault,     8t-Suli)ice-de» 

ideals  of  Dom  Gr^goire  Tarisse,  were  carried  on  with  Bourges,  Vienon. — Diocese  of  Cahors:    SouiUac.-* 

an  industry^  a  devotion,  and  a  mastery  that  aroused  Diocese  of  Clermont:  Chaise-Dieu,  Issoire,  Mauriac, 

the  admiration  of  the  learned  world.    To  this  day,  all  St-Allyre-de^lermont. — Diocese    of    La    Rochelle: 

who  labour  to  elucidate  the  past  ages  and  to  under-  Mortagne-sur-S^vre. — ^Diocese  of  Limo^:  Beaulieu, 

stand  the  growth  of  Western  Christendom,  must  ac-  Meymac.    St-Angel,    St-Augustin-de-Limoges,   Soli* 

knowledge  their  indebtedness  to  the  Maunst  Coogre-  gnao. — ^Diocese  of  Lucon:  St-Michel-en-l'Henn. — Dio- 

gatioa.  ^  ^  cese  of  Lyons:   Savigneux. — Diocese  of  P^rigueux: 

The  foUowing  were  the  monasteries  of  the  Mauiist  Brantdme. — ^Diocese  of  Poitiers:  Nouaill^  St-Cynrieiw 

Congregation  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  oen-  de-Poitiers,   St-Jouin-de-Mames,   St.   Ltonard   der 

tury:^ —  Ferriftres.   St-Maixent.    St-Savin. — ^Diocese    of   St- 

(1)  Province  of  France. — Diocese  of  Amiens:  Corbie,  Flour:  Cnanteuges. — ^Diocese  of  Saintes:  Bassac,  St- 
St-Fu8den-aux-Bois^t-Jos8e-«ur-mer,  St.  Riauier,  St-  Jean-d'An^ly. 

Val^ry. — ^Diocese  of  B«iuvais:  BreteiiilHsur-Noye,  St-        (6)  Province  of  Gascony. — Diocese  of  Agde:  St* 

Lucien-de-Beauvais. — Diocese  of  Boulogne  :St-Sauve-  Tiberi. — Diocese  of  Agen:  Eysses,  St-Maurin,  Ste- 

de-Montreuil,  Samer. — ^Diocese  of  Chartres:  Meulan.  Livrade. — Diocese    d    Aire:    La  Reule,    St-r6-de« 

— ^Diooeee  of  Laon:   Nogent-sous-Coucy,  Ribemont,  Generez,      St-Savin,      St-Sever-Can-de-Gascogoew— 

8Wean-de-Laon,  St-Nicholas-aux-Bois,  St-Vincent-  Diocese   of  Alais:    St-Pierre-de-Saive. — ^Diocese   of 

de-Laon. — Diocese  of  Meaux:   Rebais,  St-Faron-de-  Aries:  Montmajeur. — ^Diocese  of  Avignon:  Rochefort, 

Meaux,  St-Fiacre. — ^Diocese  of  Noyon:   Mont-Saint-  St-Andr^e-Villeneuve. — ^Diocese  of  B^ziers:  ViUe- 

Quentin,     St-Eloi-de-Noyon,      Str-Quentin-en-risle.  magne. — ^Diocese  of  Bordeaux:    La  Sauve-Majeure, 

— Diocese   of  Paris:    ArgenteuiL    Chelles,    Lagny,  StCH^Droix-de-Bordeaux. — ^Diocese     of    Carcassonne: 

Les-Blancs-Manteaux-de-Paris,    St-Denis-de-France,  Montolieu,     Notre-Dame-de-la-Grasse. — ^Diocese     of 

St-Oermain-des-Pr^. — Diocese    of    Reims:     Notre-  Dax:   St-Jean-de-Sorde. — Diocese  of  Grenoble:  St- 

Dame-de-Rethel,   St-Basle,    St-Marcoul-de-Corbeny,  Robert-de-Comillon. — ^Diocese   of   Laveur:    Sor&se. 

St-Nicaise-de-Rcams,  St-Remi-de-Reim&,  St-Thierry.  ^-Diocese  of  Lescar:  St-Pierre-de-Ia-R4ole. — ^Diocese 

— Diocese  of  Rouen;  Le  Tr^port.  St-Martin-de-Pon-  of  Loddve:  St-Guilhem-le-Dtert. — ^Diocese  of  Mire> 

toise. — Diocese   of    Soissons:     Cfh^zv,    Orbais,    St-  poix:  Camon. — Diocese  of  Montpellier:  St-Sauveur- 

Comeille-de-C!ompidgDe,    St-Cr6pin-dfy-Sois8ons,    St-  d'Aniane. — ^Diocese  of  Narbonne:  La  Morguier.  St* 

M6dard-de-Soissons.  PiemKle-Caunes. — Diocese  of  Nimes:  St-Bausille. — 

(2)  Province  of  Normandy. — ^Diocese  of  Bayeux:  Diocese  of  St-Pons:StrChinian. — ^Diocese  of  Toulouse: 
Cerisy-la-Foret,  Fontenay,  St-£tienne-de-Caen,  St-  Le-Mas-Gamier,  Notre-Dame-de-la-Daurade. 
Vigor-le-Grand. — Diocese  of  Beauvais:  St-Germer-  The  Superiors  of  the  Congregation  were: — Presi- 
de-Flay. — ^Diocese  of  Chartres:  Coulombs,  Josaphat-  dents:  D.  Martin  Tesni^re  (161^21),  D.  Columban 
1^8-Chartres,  St-Florentin-de-Bonneval,  St-P^re-en-  R^gnier  (1621-24),  D.  Martin  Tesnidre  (1624-27),  D. 
Valine,  Tiron. — ^Diocese    of    Coutances:    Lessay. —  Maur  Dupont  (1627-30). 

Diocese  of  Evreux:  Conches,  Ivry-la-Bataille,  Lyre,        Superiors-general: — D.  Gr^goire  Tarisse  (1630-48), 

St-Taurin  d'Evreux. — Diocese  of  Le  Mans:  LonJay-  D.  Jean  Harel  (1648-60),  D.  Bernard  Audebert  (1660- 

TAbbaye. — ^Diocese  of  Lisieux:  Beaumont-en-Auge,  72),D.VincentMar8olle  (1672-81),  D.  Michel  ISendit 

La    Couture^e-Bemay,    St-Evroult  d'Ouches,  St-  Brachet  (1681-87),  D.  Claude  Boistard  (1687-1705), 

Pierre    de    Pr6aux. — Diocese  of  Rouen:    Aumale,  D.  Simon  Bougis  (1705-11)|^D.  Amoulde  Loo  (1711- 

Bonne-Nouvelle,   Fdcamp,   Jumidges.    Le  BeCj^St-  14),  D.PetevderHostallene  (1714-20),  D.  Denysde 

George»<le-Boecherville,  St-Ouen-de-Kouen.  St-Wan-  Sainte-Marthe  (1720-25),  D.  Pierre  Thibault  (1725- 

drille-Rengon.  Valmont. — ^Diocese  of  Sto:  St-Martin-  29),  D.  Jean  Baptiste  Alaydon  (1729-32),  D.  Herv6 

de^^z,  St-Pierre-sur-Dive.  Menard  (1732-36),  D.  Claude  Dupr§   (1736-37),  D. 

(3)  Province  of  Brittany. — ^Diocese  of  Angers:  R^6  Laneau  ri737-54),  D.  Jacques  Maumousseau 
Bourgeuil,  Ch&teau-Gontier,  Craon,  Notre-Dame-de-  (1754-56),  D.  Marie  Joseph  Delrue  (1756-66),  D. 
rBvidre,  St-Aubin-d'Angers,  St-Florent-de-Saumur,  Pierre  Francois  Boudier  (1766-72),  D.  R^n6  Gillot 
St-Florent-le-Vieil,  St-Maur-eur-Loire,  St-Nicolas-  (1772-78),  D.  Charles  Lacroix  (1778-81),  D.  Charti6- 
d 'Angers,  St-Serge-d' Angers. — ^Diocese  of  Avranches:  Mousso  (1781-83),  D.  Antoine  Chevreux  (1783-92). 
Mont-Saiat-Michel. — ^Diocese  of  Dol :  Le  Tronchet,  St-  The  Procurators-General  in  Rome,  who  were  all  of 
Jacut-de-Ia-Mer. — ^Diocese  of  Le  Mans:  Evron,  St-  importance  in  the  histoiv  of  the  Conmgation,  were:— 
Pierre-de-la-Couture,  St-Vincent-du-Mans,  Solesmes,  D.  Placide  Le  Simon  (1623-61);  D.  Gabriel  Flam- 
Tuff^.— Diocese  of  Nantes:  Blanche-Couronne,  Notre-  bart  (1665-72),  D.  Antoine  Durban  (1672-81),  D. 
Dame-de-la-Chaume,  Pirmil,  St-Gildas-des-Bois,  Ver-  Gabriel  Flambart  (1681-84),  D.  Claude  Estiennot 
tou.— Diocese  of  Poitiers:  Montreuil-Bellay.— Dio-  (1684-99),  D.  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  (1699-1701), 
cese  of  Quimper:  Landevenec,  Quimperl^. — ^Diocese  D.  Guillaume  Laparre  (1701-11).  D.  Philippe  Rafier 
of  Rennes:  St-Magloire-de-Lehon,  St-Melaine^e-  (1711-16),  D.  Charles  Conrade  (1716-25),  D.  Pierre 
Renoes,  Ste-Croix-de-Vitr6. — ^Diocese  of  St-Brieuc:  Maloet  (1721-33).  No  successor  to  D.  Maloet  was 
Lantenac. — Diocese  of  Saint-Malo:  St-Malo. — ^Diocese  appointed. 

of  St-Pol-de-L^n:  St-Mathieu-de-Fine-Terre.— Dio-        Ai^noK,  Th0  ConffrwoUm  of  StrMaur  in  Domuide  Review 

ee8eofTours:Beaulieu,Cormery,Marmoutier,Noyers,  (Mansh  Mid  July,  1006):    Anqbr,  Lea  dSptndancM  deSt- 

Vaanes:    St-GildaS-de-RhuiS.  St-Sauveur-de-Redon.  Revue  MabOon  IV,  (1909);   Bbaunikr,  RecueU  hiatoHque  dee 

(4)  Province  of  Burgundy. — ^Diocese  of  Autim:  9r?**^f^'JSJ*^'4^**v/'  p»^^«  4f.^T^*  ifUnduetion 
CoriHgny.  Fljmgay  St-Jfart^Ue^O^  ffiSSL  IJIk^'o'S.B^^'^tel^e^^^'tt  $1 
Auzene:    St-Gennain.— Diocese  oC  Blois:   Pont-to-  eorreevfmdanu  UtUraine  de  binSdietine  de  Si-Mavr  dansTm 


pfaikMMhy  and 

thcoloer.  b.at  Spoleto,  31  Dm.,  1619;  d.  in  Rmne,  13 

Jan..  1687.    He  eatered  the  Socirty  of  Jesus,  21  April, 

1636.     After  fintshing  tua  eoune  of  studies  &nd  t«*cb- 

ing  humuiiues  at  the  Colkge  of  lI»eentA.  he  held  b 

tbe  same  place  the  diair  of  ptiilaaopliy  for  three  yeart. 

and  subaequenth-  in  Bame  for  aei-vral  j-eftn.     Then  h» 

^     was  pKRDoIed  to  the  chair  of  thcolo^  at  the  Roman 

<ii     CoH^.  and  iTOiMoed  in  this  pomtion  for  a  consider- 

*^    able  numberof  yean.     For  a  period  he  was  a ko  rector 

aoui.     °f  *^  bttfT  instituticn.     The  mental  endowment  of 

iy^2-:     Fatberyaunn  waaabappy  cooibiiiatioiiof  tfaespecu- 

ii™™n'^^     htivc  and  the  practical  turn  of  mind.     His  doctrine 

"X^^^om,     *>B  noted  for  its  toundneaa  and  aolidttv;  At  the  same 

time,  he  eonatajitly  put  in  pcactice  St.  Paul's  priociple. 

"not  to  be  iwm  wise  than  it  bdnveth  to  be  wise,  but 

to  be  wiae  unto  K>bciely".     Thou^  he  was  a  good 

philosopher  and  theologiaii.  he 

waa  a  better  relicious.     Thow 

,  jr«SiS«'s;jirjs.;;ss  -n  .o,».i»iedTfu,  him  «, 

(Aantran.  iriii  :  Romin,  .•iupiM-  CODTmredthat  he  oeTer  loet  his 

Z^L2nI  ,1^ S'jf'"^'!''  ^  'I'An-  baptismal  innocence.      Neither 

SSSTiM  *-i*«''rS^^a™<  li  *^  holine«    oor    his   learning 

timluiim  TanL  KS7-.  .-tuf.  U  made  him  a  diaa^«eable  rom- 

^rtmia-  mp^TD-  gfj>fral  *■  la  nm-  tBnion  Or  an  uiMksirable  friend. 

9issitsX:'iuS!r<«".  Wukii.h^i<,„.wbfth« 

si-W:  Tivii'v.  Hi^£nrt  Iiut.ii»  it  he  was  more  admired  or  loved 

iaam»r*oiUioT,cfr.^-i(oBr  iBrTi~^j.  br  Ibose  wbo came  ioto  ooDtact 

««    MdKrn    (P«lm.    d.    Milk.™.  "™'^       .  ■        ,^     , 

imoj;  v»cu/.«fi^-'J<^mi^S('  TbefoUowingworksof  Fatfatf 

Ma^  h  _St-r,^Tmair.-^t-F'{M  'PiiM.  Haurus  deserve  mention;    (1| 


dtiaanVT^r^ianJiStilout.i'Pvu,  . — 

■   ^f-^t."  ,"?   "/«""   ^^^  Collegio  Romano   Philosophic 


■bo  (be  l»blio,r.ph™  .ttKb^  lo  57^1^^^.  ■  (           u    T"* 

tte  uticta  OB    nlrbnied  MiuKsU  dlilded  into    four  books,    and 

is  T»«  CiiBouc  E^cTciflpemi.  appeared  at  Rome  in  1658.     A 

Lmue  A..St.  L.ToKE.  second  edition  was   iasited  in 

MulitilU.   SeePoBrLocis,  IGTO.      The  latest  edition,   in 

Dlocisc  OF.  three  volumea,  is  prefaced   bv 

„  .„        ,     ___.          o  •  letter  of  Father  Liberatore. 

HamitilU  d«  Portn.      Sae  .od    appeared    in    Le     Mans. 

OTrHELr,  M.»i-miCE.                                                 Badtt  Kwima  1875-76.   (2)"  Aristotelis opera 

Mannu,   Saist,    deacon,                    pwurfDo, CJnrebof St.P»««.  qu^    extant    omnia,     brpii 

son   of   Equitius.  a   nobleman                                     rtruMo,  paraph  rasi,   ac  Iitter«  per- 

dt  Rook,  but  claitned  also  by  Fondi,  Gallipoli,  La-  petuo  inhcrentc  explanstione  illustrata".     Tlie  work 

veDoetc,  (Dckhaye, "  Legends",  London,  1907,  59);  appeared  in  s\x  ralumea.  Rome.  1668.     The  second 

d.  5M.    Fcasl,  15' Jan.    He  is  reprcaented  as  an  abbot  volume,  containing!  -Aristotle's  moral  philosophy,  was 

with  croiier,  or  with  book  and  censer,  or  holding  the  edited  anew  in  lCSW-98.     The  whole  work  was  pub- 

weiehts  and  toeaauies  of  food  and  drink  given  him  iishedaeain  in  Pari8,lSS5-S7, by  Fathers  Ehrle.Felch- 

by  his  holy  master.     Ue  is  the  patron  of  clurcoal-  lin.  and  Berinpr;   this  edition  formed  part  of  tl« 

buraera,  coppefstniths    etc. — in    Belgium    of    shoe-  collection entit fed  "Bil>liotbecaTbeoloKiKet  Philoso- 

makera — and  is   invoked    aptinst    gout,   hoarseness  piiiffi  scholastic*''.    (3) ''Qtuestionum  theologicarum 

etc.   (Kericr).  .  He  was  a  disciple  of  Si.  Elenedict,  and  11.  6",  publisLedat  Rome.  16.6-79;  this  work  contains 

his  chief  support  at  Subiaco.     By  St.  Gregory  the  alltheprincipaltbeologicaltreatisea.   (4)  "Opustheol- 

Great  f Lib.  Dialog.,  II)  he  is  descnbed  as  a  model  of  ogicum",  published  in  three  folio  x-olumea  at  Rome, 


■  Acta  88.  0. 8.  B,   ,  1, 274)  he  went  to  I  rancc  m  itVi,  contains  some  mlormaLon  conecrtung  the  aut 

and  became  the  founder  and  superior  of  the  abbev  at  also  his  picture  engraved  bv  Louis  Lenfant. 

Glanfeuil,   later  known   by  hia    name.      This  Vita,  j^^'^v'^  ■Ha""''"'^'  *"""'"""- **'"''**i'" 

ascribed  to  a  companion,  the  monk  Faustus  of  Monte  "■'■■'■"■  Tsa»q.  ^         , 


Acta  88.  0. 8.  B,",  1, 274)  be  went  to  France  in  543,  contains  some  information  concerning  the  author,  and 

BOiiaOiivi*  itbC. 

Cassino,  has  been  severely  atlacited.     Dole  hay  e  (loc,  "-  J.         as. 

dt.,  106)  callsit  atorgery  of  AblxilO<loot  Gbnteuilin         ««.„__    i„   .,  i~ .__i'     i       j    _.   . 

Ita  m»th  «»tuT.  but  Adlboch  (Stud.  u.  Mittheil.,  K„!;'?7\5Sf  "^"iS^  i"'',""T;j 

1903,3;   1908,  l?5)n»ke..«alou.ddeac..     On  tb^  fe?  .J'b™,'^',^  SJ.    ,5?     'Hf^fTt'-       If' 

-,. ' a   II     _       ui : r  .1 :.i.  r.i.  ; aicl  at  Kome  on  10  May,  ISli.     He  made  his  eanv 

fcumum  S.  ilaun,  a  hlesiang  ot  the  sick  with  invoca-      ,„■- -     ,  ■    _  ,■  .     .    ■"      ^  ,     .    ,    - _         j  , • 

•n   '•"         w       '     _;     _  -_  It     1 j: (  n:.  ._i_  studies  m  hia  native  town  and  at  Avumon.  and  bv 

tion  of  St.  M;iuruB  given  in  the  Appendix  of  Ilituale  ,.  „  „,„     .  „;„.,»...„,   k.>,i   ,^^-.^\^i~i   \X,  lU-Ti      ■_! 

■W™,  „  "Studio  „.  MilihSP-  (1S82),  165.  S«Jf  t:ZT;^^^Sl'  ^SlSS 

320: XIII.  170:  XIv'.23.315:X%-|.*.W:  l^sDKT.Ar.U,tnnui-  the  attenlion  of  a  Brand-nepnew  Of  hfnelon  bj  a  eu- 

ivd'i  de  rabhn<it  dr  S.  Maur  am  Vllt-  rt  IX-  tiicWi  (Angpni.  logy  of  the  great  archbishop,   and   was   appointed 

ie05>;    loFK.  La  ina  hut.  manturriin  tfa  fatitaut  dt  S.  il.  Vicar-General  o(  the  Diocese  of  Lombei  in  Cascony. 

(Anwn.  1907);  CatTu^s.^  S«^B^^  ».  Waur.  SI.       _  ,„  y--,^  he  was  selected  by  the  Academy  to  preach  the 

^^^  pan«ryric  of  St.  Louis  at  the  Louvre.     His  success 
was  such  that  the  audience  interrupted  hiiQ  with  loud 


HAXJBMTinB 


73 


MAZENTinS 


A|^Iaus&  Ab  a  reward  he  received  a  benefice  and  ap- 
pointment as  royal  preacher.  At  the  General  Synod 
of  1775  he  fearlessly  exposed  the  failings  of  the  court 
bishops,  and  in  1784,  preaching  on  St.  Vincent  of 
Paul,  he  denounced  the  ingratitude  of  France  towards 
one  of  her  worthiest  sons.  These  two  sermons  have 
been  preserved;  the  remainder  were  burnt  by  Maury 
himself — ^to  save,  as  he  said,  his  reputation.  Never- 
theless, it  was  owing  to  them  that  ne  obtained  a  seat 
in  the  Academy  (1784).  In  1789  he  was  elected  by 
the  clergy  of  P^ronne  to  be  their  deputy  in  the  States- 
General,  and  soon  became  the  acknowledged  leader 
of  the  Court  and  Church  party.  Mirabeau  s  name  at 
once  occurs  whenever  the  National  Assembly  is  men- 
tioned. Little  is  heard  of  the  Abb^  Maury,  who  was 
the  great  tribune's  most  doughty  adversary,  and  who, 
though  always  defeated  on  the  vote,  was  not  seldom 
the  conqueror  in  the  debate.  In  September,  1791. 
the  Assemblv  was  dissolved,  and  Mauiy  quitted 
France  for  Coblens,  the  headquarters  of  the  emigrants. 
Here  he  was  received  by  the  king's  brothers  with 
extraordinary  attention.  Pius  VI  invited  him  to  re- 
side in  Rome,  and  created  him  Archbishop  of  Nicsea 
(April,  1792).  Soon  afterwards  he  represented  the 
Holy  See  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfort,  where  Francis  II 
was  elected  emperor.  The  royal  and  noble  person- 
ages assembled  there  vied  with  one  another  in  showing 
him  honour.  On  his  return  he  was  made  cardinal  and 
Archbishop  of  Montefiascone.  When  the  Republican 
armies  overran  Italy  in  1798,  Maury  fled  to  Venice, 
and  took  a  prominent  part,  as  representative  of  Louis 
XVIII,  in  the  conclave  at  which  Pius  VII  was  elected 
(1800).  He  did  his  best  to  stop  the  drawing  up  of  the 
Concordat,  but  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  desert- 
ing his  royal  master  and  returning  to  Paris.  Just  as 
he  had  given  his  whole  energies  to  the  royal  cause,  so 
now  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  Napoleon.  In  the 
diflicult  question  of  the  divorce  he  sided  with  the 
emperor,  and  it  was  he  who  su^ested  a  means  of  dis- 
pensing with  the  papal  institution  of  the  bishops.  He 
accepted  from  Napoleon  in  this  way  the  See  of  Paris, 
though  he  never  styled  himself  anjrthing  but  arch- 
bishop-elect. At  the  fall  of  the  Empire  (April,  1814), 
he  was  ordered  to  quit  France,  and  was  suspended  by 
the  pope.  During  the  Hundred  Days  he  was  con- 
fined in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo.  Consalvi  obtained 
his  release,  and  broii^ht  about  his  reconciliation  with 
Pius  VII.  His  position  as  cardinal  was  restored  to 
him,  and  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Congregation 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars.  Maury  did  not  live  long  to 
enjo^  his  restoration  to  papal  favour.  The  hardships 
of  his  prison  life  had  destroyed  his  constitution,  and 
aggravated  the  malady  from  which  he  had  long  been 
suffering.  Early  in  Mdy,  1817,  his  stren^h  had  so 
failed  that  the  Last  Sacraments  were  admmistered  to 
him.  During  the  night  of  10  May  his  attendants 
found  him  lying  deaS  with  his  rosary  still  in  his 
grasp. 

Louis  XVni  had  obstinately  refused  all  reconcilia- 
tion, and  now  forbade  his  body  to  be  buried  in  his 
titular  church.  Trinity  dei  Monti.  By  order  of  the 
pope  the  remains  were  laid  before  the  high  altar  of  the 
Chiesa  Nuova,  by  the  side  of  Baronius  and  Tarugi. 
When  Pius  VII  heard  of  his  death  he  said:  *'  He  com- 
mitted many  faults,  but  who  is  there  that  has  not 
done  the  like?  I  myself  have  committed  many  grave 
ones." 

(EuvreM  Choinsa  (Paris,  1827);  Poujouult,  Le  Cardinal 
Maury:  m  Vie  A  9e»  (Euvtm  (Paris,  1865);  Ricard,  L'AbM 
Maury,  174fi-t79t  (Paris,  1887);  Idem,  Corretpondance  Diplo- 
matiqus  et  Mhnoirea  inSdiia  du  CardincU  Maury ,  1799-1817 
(liUe.  1801);  Bomrr-MAXTBT,  Le  Cardinal  Maury  d'apr^a  aa 
Correspondance  H  aea  M&moirea  infdHa  (Paris,  1892) ;  Saxntb- 
Bbutb.  Cauaeriea  du  Limdi,  IV  (Paris,  1863);  Scannell  in 
friah  Bed,  Record  (1802). 

T,  B.  Scannell. 

MazflntiiUi  Joannss,  leader  of  the  so-called  Scyth- 
ian m<mk8,  appears  in  history  at  Constantinople 


in  519  and  520.  These  m(»iks  adopted  the  formula: 
"  One  of  the  Trinitv  suffered  in  the  flesh"  to  exclude 
Nestorianism  and  Monophysitism,  and  they  sought  to 
have  the  works  of  Faustus  of  Riez  condemned  as  being 
tainted  with  Pela^anism.  On  both  these  points  they 
met  with  opposition.  John  Maxentius  presented  an 
appeal  to  the  papal  legates  then  at  Constantinople  (Ep. 
ad  legatos  secus  apostolicse,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i,  75-S6); 
but  it  failed  to  bring  forth  a  favourable  decision.  Some 
of  the  monks  (not  Maxentius,  however)  proceeded, 
therefore,  to  Rome  to  lay  the  case  before  Pope  Hor- 
misdas.  As  the  latter  delayed  his  decision,  tney  ad- 
dressed themselves  to  some  African  bishops,  banished 
to  Sardinia,  and  St.  Fulgentius,  answering  in  the  name 
of  these  prelates,  warmly  endorsed  their  cause  (Fulg. 
ep.,  xvii  m  P.  L.,  LXV,  451-93).  Early  in  August,  520, 
tne  monks  left  Rome.  Shortly  after,  13  August,  520, 
Hormisdas  addressed  a  letter  to  the  African  bishop, 
Possessor,  then  at  Constantinople,  in  which  he  severely 
condemned  the  conduct  of  the  Scythian  monks,  also 
declaring  that  the  writings  of  Faustus  were  not  re- 
ceived among  the  authoritative  works  of  the  Fathers 
and  that  the  sound  doctrine  on  grace  was  contained  in 
the  works  of  St.  Augustine  (Hormisdse  ep.,  cxxiv  in 
Tiuel,  p.  926).  Maxentius  assailed  this  letter  in  the 
strongest  language  as  a  document  written  by  heretics 
and  circulated  under  the  pope's  name  (Ad  epistulam 
Hormisdse  responsio,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i,  93-112). 
This  is  the  last  trace  of  the  Sc3rthian  monks  and  their 
leader  in  history.  The  identification  of  John  Maxen- 
tius with  the  priest  John  to  whom  Fulgentius  ad- 
dressed his  "  De  veritate  prsedestinationis  etc."  and 
with  the  priest  and  archimandrite,  John,  to  whom  the 
African  bishops  sent  their  ''Epistula  s^odica",  rests 
on  a  baseless  assumption.  Maxentius  is  also  the 
author  of:  (1)  two  dialogues  against  the  Nestorians; 
(2)  twelve  anathematisms  against  the  Nestorians;  (3) 
a  treatise  against  the  Aoephali  (Monophysites).  As 
to  the  "  Professio  de  Christo",  printed  as  a  separate 
work,  it  is  but  a  part  of  the  "  Epistola  ad  legatos  sedis 
apostolicse".  His  works,  originally  written  in  Latin, 
have  reached  us  in  a  rather  unsatisfactory  condition. 
They  were  first  published  by  Cochlseus  (Basle  and 
Hagenau,  1520),  reprinted  m  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i, 

75-158. 

NoRis.  opera  Omnia  (Verona.  1729),  I.  474-604;  III.  775- 
942;   LooFS,  Leontiua  von  Ehfaanz,  229-61,  in  Texle  und  Untef 
aueh.t  III  (LeipBiK,  1887);  Davids  in  Did.  Chrial.  Bioy.,  b.  v. 
Maxentiua  (4);    Bardbnhbwkb,  Patrology,  tr.   Sbahan   (81 
Louis,  1908),  548-49. 

N.  A.  Wbbbb. 

Maxentius,  Mahcus  Aubelius,  Roman  Emperor 
306-12,  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximianus  Herculiua 
and  son-in-law  of  the  chief  Em|>eror  Galerius.  After 
his  father's  abdication  he  lived  in  Roihe  as  a  private 
citizen;  but  when  Galerius  established  in  Rome  and 
Italy  the  new  poll  and  land  taxes  decreed  by  Diocle- 
tian he  was  elected  (28  October,  306)  rival  emperor. 
Maxentius  owed  his  elevation  not  to  personal  merit 
but  to  the  senators  and  pretorians  who,  because  of  the 
unusual  measures  of  the  emperor,  feared  lest  thev 
should  lose  their  privileged  position.  Maxentius  s 
adherents  then  summoned  his  father  from  Campania 
to  Rome;  and  the  youne  ruler  invested  him  witn  the 
purple  as  co-regent.  Thus  the  Roman  empire  had 
six  rulers.  Severus,  the  Augustus  of  the  West,  re- 
ceived a  commission  from  Gralerius  to  expel  the 
youthful  usurper  from  Rome;  but  when  he  reached 
the  capital,  part  of  his  army  deserted  to  their  old  com- 
mander, Maximian.  Severus  with  a  few  followers 
escaped  to  Ravenna  so  as  to  maintain  military  rela- 
tions with  Galerius.  He  then  made  terms  with 
Maximian  and  surrendered  to  him,  expecting  honour- 
able treatment,  but  he  was  imprisoned  soon  after- 
wards and,  Galerius  approaching  from  Illyria  with  an 
army,  he  was  forced  to  commit  suicide.  Alar*nccl  at 
Galerius's  intervention,  Maximian  on  behalf  r^  M.rv-n- 


74 


MAXTMTANUS 


tiu8,  negotiated  with  Constantine  to  whom  he  p^ve  his 
daughter  Fausta  as  bride.  Meanwhile  Galenus  with 
his  Tllyrian  legions  pushed  forward  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Rome,  but  finding  that  he  was  unable  to  oc- 
cupy it  or  any  of  tJie  fortined  places,  he  withdrew  his 
forces.  At  his  suggestion  a  conference  of  all  the 
Gssars  took  place  at  Camuntum  on  the  Danube  (307) 
in  which  the  prestige  of  Diocletian  had  great  influence. 
Maxentius  retained  his  imperial  dignity.  Though  it 
is  true  that  soon  after  this  he  put  an  end  to  the  i)erBecu- 
tion  of  the  Christians  in  Italv  and  Africa,  his  reign  was 
stained  with  acts  of  debauchery  and  cruelty. 

After  his  father's  death,  MiuEentius  ana  Maximin, 
Emperor  of  the  East,  fearing  the  political  alliance  of 
Constantino  and  Licinius,  came  to  an  understanding 
imfriendly  to  Constantine.  Maxentius  made  exten- 
sive military  preparations,  and  destroyed  the  statues 
and  paintings  of  Constantme.  Constantine  advanced 
over  what  is  now  Mont  Cenis  with  a  comparatively 
small  but  well-drilled  army  and,  victorious  in  several 
battles,  occupied  Upper  Italy;  he  then  marched 
against  Rome,  where  his  opponent,  strongly  en- 
trenched behind  the  Tiber  and  the  walls  of  Aurelius, 
hoped  to  resist  him  successfully.  Thoughtlessly 
and  shortsightedly,  Maxentius,  abandoning  this  ex- 
cellent position,  made  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the 
'nber  (near  the  Milvian  Bridge  now  Ponte  Molle),  and 
awaited  the  troops  of  Constantine  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river.  It  was  then  that  occurred  the  miracle  re- 
lated by  Eusebius  (Vita  Constant.  1, 2^30),  that  when 
Constantine  implored  supernatural  aid,  a  fiery  cross 
appeared  over  the  sun  with  the  legend:  ro&rtf  vUa 
(conquer  with  this).  Further,  he  md  been  advised 
by  Cnrist,  in  a  dream  the  previous  nieht,  to  go  into 
battle  armed  with  this  sign.  Maxentiusrs  soldiers  were 
thrown  into  confusion  bv  the  impetuosity  of  the 
Gallic  horsemen,  and  in  the  efforts  of  the  retreating 
masses  to  escape  over  the  narrow  bridge,  many  were 
thrown  into  tne  river  and  drowned,  among  them 
MBUcentius  (28  October,  312).  His  son  and  counsel- 
lors were  put  to  death,  but  his  officials  and  depen- 
dents retained  their  positions. 

6C3IXLLER.  Oeach,  d.  Hhniachen  KaUeneitt  II  (Gotha,  1887); 
!>■  Waai^  Rotna  Sacra  (Munich,  1905). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Mazfleld  (vere  Macclesfield),  Thomas,  Venebp 
ABLE,  English  priest  and  martyr,  d.  in  Stafford  gaol, 
about  1590,  martyred  at  Tyburn,  London,  Monday, 
1  July,  1616.  He  was  one  of  the  younger  sons  oi 
William  Macclesfield  of  Chesterton  and  Maer  and  As- 
ton, Staffordshire  (a  firm  recusant,  condemned  to 
death  in  1587  for  harbouring  priests,  one  of  whom  was 
his  brother  Humphrey),  and  Ursula,  daughter  of 
Francis  Roos,  of  Laxton,  Nottinghamshire.  William 
Macclesfield  is  said  to  have  died  in  prison  and  ijs  one  of 
the  proBtermissi  as  William  Maxfiela ;  but,  as  his  death 
occurred  in  1608,  this  is  doubtful.  Thomas  arrived  at 
the  English  College  at  Douai  on  16  March,  1602-3,  but 
had  to  return  to  England  17  May,  1610,  owing  to  ill 
health.  In  1614  he  went  back  to  Douai,  was  oiv 
dfdned  priest,  and  in  the  next  year  came  to  London. 
Within  three  months  of  landing  he  was  arrested,  and 
sent  to  the  Gatehouse,  Westminster.  After  about 
eight  months'  imprisonment,  he  tried  to  escape  by  a 
rope  let  down  from  the  window  in  his  cell,  but  was 
captiu^d  on  reaching  the  groimd.  This  was  at  mid- 
night 14-15  June.  1616.  For  seventy  hours  he  was 
E laced  in  the  stocks  in  a  filthy  dungeon  at  the  Gate- 
ouse,  and  wsts  then  on  Monday  night  (17  June)  re- 
moved to  Newgate,  where  he  was  set  amongst  the 
worst  criminals,  two  of  whom  he  converted.  On 
Wednesday,  26  June,  he  was  brought  to  the  bar  at  the 
Old  Bailey,  and  the  next  day  was  condemned  solelv 
for  being  a  priest,  under  27  Elis.,  c,  2.  The  Spanish 
ambassador  did  his  best  to  obtain  a  pardon,  or  at  least 
a  reprieve;  but,  finding  his  efforts  ima vailing^  had 
solemn  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  m  his 


chapel  during  the  martyr's  last  night  on  earth.  The 
procession  to  Tyburn  early  on  the  following  morning 
was  joined  by  many  devout  Spaniards,  who,  in  spite  of 
insults  and  mockery,  persisted  in  forming  a  guard  of 
honour  for  the  martyr.  Tyburn -tree  itself  was 
found  decorated  with  garlands,  and  the  ground  round 
about  strewn  with  sweet  herbs.  The  sheriff  ordered 
the  martyr  to  be  cut  down  alive,  but  popular  feeling 
was  too  strong,  and  the  disembowelling  did  not  takf 
place  tiU  he  was  quite  senseless.  Half  of  his  relics  are 
now  at  Downside  Abbey,  near  Bath. 

Life  and  Mariyrdom  of  Mr.  Maa^M,  Priett  1616,  ed. 
Pollen,  in  Caiholic  Record  Societu,  III,  30-58;  Challoxcb. 
MemoirM  of  Miawionary  Prwate,  11  (Manchester,  1803).  51; 
Pollabd  in  Diet.  Nat.  Bioo.,  «.  v.:  Stanton,  Menologu  of  En^ 
land  and  TToZm  (London.  1887).  298;  Ths  WtUiam  SaU  AnMme- 
logical  Society* »  Collection*  for  a  uietory  of  Staffordahirt  (  London. 
I8isi^-1909),  III,  iu;  V,  u.  207;  new  eenes,  V^  128;  XII.  248. 

John  B.  Wainkwrigrt. 

MaTimlanopolia,  a  titular  see  of  Palestina  Secunda. 
suffragan  of  Scythopolis.  Its  ancient  name,  Adad- 
Remmon,  according  to  the  Vulgate  (according  to  the 
Hebrew.  Hadad-Rimmon)  is  foimd  in  Zach.,  xii,  11: 
"...  tnere  shall  be  a  great  lamentation  in  Jerusalem 
like  the  lamentation  of  Adadremmon  in  the  plain  of 
Mageddon,"  an  allusion  to  the  death  of  Josiaa,  King  o' 
Jerusalem,  killed  by  the  Pharaoh  Nechao  in  the  battle 
fought  near  this  place  (IV  Kings,  xziii,  29;  II  Par. 
zxxv,  20-25).  In  the  time  of  the  so-called  "  Pilgrim 
of  Bordeaux"  (ed.  Geyer,  19,  27)  and  of  St.  Jerome 
("Comment,  in  Zachar:'^  ad  cap.  xii,  11;  "Comment. 
in  Oz.'\  5),  Adad-Remmon  alreiady  bore  the  name  of 
Maximianopolis.  Three  of  its  ancient  bishops  are 
known:  Paul,  in  325  ((jelser,  "Patrum  Nicsenorum 
nomina",  bd) — not  Msjdmus,  as  Le  Quien  gives  it  in 
"Oriens  Cliristianus'',  III,  703;  Megas,  in  518,  and 
Domnus,  in  536  (Le  Quien,  op.  cit.,  703-06).  Maximi- 
anopolis has  resumed  its  ancient  name  of  Rimmon, 
and  is  now  the  almost  deserted  little  village  of  Roum- 
maneh,  nearly  four  miles  to  the  south  of  Ledjun,  or 
Mageddo  (see  Legio). 

OutnxN,  Deacription  de  la  Paleetine:  Samaria  (Paris.  1875\ 
II,  228-230;  Gelikr,  Oeorgii  Cyprii  Deacriptio  orina  romani 
(Leipnc.  1890),  103-06;  Lboenorb  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bibit, 
a.  V.  Aaadremmon, 

S.  Vailre. 

Mazimiuiiu,  Mabcub  Aureliub  Valerius,  sm^ 
named  Hercuiius,  Roman  Emperor,  was  adopted  by 
Diocletian  and  named  his  co-regent  in  285,  because  by 
this  division  of  the  sovereignty  the  danj^er  of  the  war- 
riors' mutiny,  the  ambitious  efforts  of  the  usurpers, 
and  the  attacks  of  foreign  enemies  seemed  to  be  pre- 
vented in  the  surest  way.  Diocletian  gave  him,  who 
had  b^n  hitherto  his  brother^in-^rms  and  was  now  his 
fellow  resent,  the  surname  Hercuiius,  in  remembrance 
of  the  help  which  the  mythological  Hercules  rendered 
his  father  Jupiter  in  the  latter's  struggle  against  the 

fiants.  Like  Diocletian.  Maximianiis  came  from 
llyria,  from  the  neighbournood  of  Sirmium;  as  the  son 
of  a  simple  peasant,  he  possessed  onlv  very  little  edu- 
cation; ne  was  violent  and  brutal,  but  was  a  brave 
fighter.  For  this  reason,  when  Diocletian  was  strug- 
gfing  with  the  Persians  in  Asia,  Maximianus  was  en- 
trusted with  the  leadership  of  the  punitive  expedition 
against  the  peasants  and  field  slaves  (Bagauoans)  in 
Gaul  who,  driven  by  economical  causes,  had  risen 
against  Diocletian.  The  new  emperor  soon  restored 
peace,  and  received  from  Diocletian,  in  token  of  the 
tatter's  gratitude,  the  title  of  Augustus  on  1  April,  286. 
However,  only  the  administration  of  the  empire  was 
divided;  the  sovereignty  remained  centralized  now  ss 
ever,  and  the  will  of  the  emperor-in-chief,  Diocletian, 
was  absolute.  While  Maximianus,  having  established 
his  head-quarters  at  Mains,  was  successful  m  the  strug- 
gles with  the  Burgundians  and  the  Alamanni,  who  had 
crossed  the  frontier  and  the  Rhine,  he  fotmd  many  ob- 
stacles in  repulsing  the  Menapian  pirate  chief  Carau- 
sius.     Originally  commander-in-chief  of  ih^  Roman 


76 

navy,  Garauavs  had  pursued  and  conquered  the  pi-  he  returned  to  the  forging  of  nefarious  schemes  anunat 

rates  of  the  German  ocean;  then,  driven  by  groed  and  his  son-in-law,  and  finaUy  was  compelled  to  take  hiB 

ambition,  he  had  forced  Britain  to  do  homage  to  him,  own  life  in  310. 

and  aeiaed  the  whole  trade  in  Gaul  and  Bntain.    In  Scbzllbr,  Getch,  d.  r&miacKm  KaUentU;  Allabo,  La  pen^ 

286  he  even  appropriated  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  *''''*^  ^  DweUtien  «i  U  triomphe  de  r^^/iw  (Paris,  1890). 

caused  coins  to  Be  struck  which  bore  his  own  portrait.  Karl  Hobbbr. 

Even  Diocletian,  by  a  compromise  in  290,  was  forced  m».«i^ai.,*    ^v    «           t            %       ^           /*\ 

to  recogniie  Carausius  as  the  legal  emperor,  while  the  w  Maxtaiillan,  the  name  of  several  martra.     (1) 

lattcTiireed  to  supply  Diocl^um  with  com,  as  had  Jf^^^^^f/  ^^^'  *  ^^'^Ti'i  "^^S^  **  ^- 

been  thecustom                                   «-•         ,       *4-«  tioch,  Jan.  353,  with  Bonosus,  a  feUow  soldier,  of  the 

As  Diocletian  left  Syria  to  enter  the  countries  of  the  Herwilean  cohort ;  they  w;ere  standapd-bearers  and  re- 
Lower  Danube,  he  met  Maximianus,  and  both  the  em-  j"^^  A°  !?°*^®  J^^'"*T?i^*'"'^"^  u  V?^^ 
perors  crtMsed  the  Alps  in  the  beginning  of  291  in  order  fj^^.^'^^iT  standard,  as  had  been  ordered  by  Juhan 
to  attend  a  conferenw  at  MikS^,  there  to  discuss  the  ^®  "^P^*®!.  ^^*  ^^"ti.  "^i?^?  ""^  the  emperor, 
better  administration  of  the  empire  and  the  improve-  ©onMnanded  them  to  replace  the  {^rw^  with  imagM 
ment  of  the  constitution.  Henceforrord  two  sub-  ^^  J%  *5i,"PS?  ^^^"^  refusal,  had  them  tortur^ 
stitutee,  caUed  Cceaara,  were  to  supplement  the  two  ^^  beheaded.  The  Roman  martyrology  and  most 
governing  emperors.  Constantius  and  Galerius  were  ^J^«'  calendars  mention  them  on  21  August,  while  m  a 
proclaimed  Caesare  1  March,  293;  the  first  was  forced  *  ^fT^^^u  ^a  i'^^oli'^l  ^  T^t^V^^^^^vJJ'w  ^  ^^ 
to  marry  the  stepdaughter  of  Maximianus,  Theodora,  ™i*^  ^a  ^i  fu  -^^'J^  ^  "  ^^{}J^.^' 
after  the  exile  ifhirmother  Helena.  Maximianui  nated  as  the  day  of  then- martvrdom.  Both  dates  are 
now  took  charge  of  the  administration  of  Italy,  Africa,  ^°f '  ^  "  evident  from  the  Acts  of ^  two  martyrs, 
and  Spain.  hL  residence  was  Milan,  where  he  wai  which  represent  Count  Juhanasmfectwiy^^^ 
surrounded  by  6000  lUyrian  picked  troops,  caUed  Her-  S?S!f '  ^S?'*^*?*  ^®  martyrdom  of  St.  Theodoret 
culiana.  CoMtantius  on  his  part  was  £ow  successful  23  Oct^2  (2)  Maxiiouan  op  te^ 
in  his  struggle  with  Carausius.  The  war  came  quickly  imposed  in  the  thuleenth  centiuy  m^ 
to  an  end,  as  Carausius  was  assassinated  by  Allectus,  S®  ^'^  ^'  at  Celeui  (Cilh,  Styna),  made  a  pilgnmage  to 
prefect  of  his  guard,  in  293.  Constantius  then  re-  ?.T®'  'J?^  ^  missionary  to  Noncimi,  became  Arch- 
united  Britain  with  the  Roman  Empire,  while  Maxi-  ?^P  of  Laureacum  (Lorch,  near  Pasaau)  and  suf- 
mianus  protected  the  frontiera  of  Gaul  against  the  ?.!?*  martyrdom  under  Numenanus  (283-1).  It  is 
Teutons  on  the  Upper  Rhine.  When  ConsSntius  had  histpncaUy  wrtam  that  Maxunihan 
returned  from  Britain,  Maximianus  went  in  297  to  ?  ^T^  durmg the  latter  half  of  thethud  century, 
Africa,  where  he  sucessf ully  made  war  upon  rebellious  &™®!l  the  church  of  Lorch,  and  suffered  martyrdom, 
tribea  of  the  Moors,  and  int  a  great  liany  captives  His  cult  dat^  at  least  from  the  eighth  oentuiy.  In 
into  the  other  provinces.  In  302lie  celebrated  a  great  «iatcentunr  St.  Rupert  bmlt  a  church  in  h^ 
triumph  with  Diocletian  in  Rome;  seventeen  times  he  Bischofshofen,  and  brought  his  rehw  thither.    They 

had  borne  the  title  of  Imperator.    The  pereecution  of  T^^J'tS^J?^  Y^    "^V  ^  ^SS'  r.5^  /o^**  ^^^ 

the  Christians,  which  Diocletian  had  conducted  with  ^^^^  ^t^'  **  some  places  29  Oct.    (3)  Mammx- 

reckless  brutality  in  the  East  since  303,  was  also  taken  "^  ^'lo^^^^u'^f^l^P^-  **    n? -f^  °®*'  ^iT 

up  by  Maximianus  in  the  western  provinces,  of  which  **^^.l/^?*[r'  ^^J-  Thmkmga  ChnsUan  was  not 

he  was  governor  permitted  to  be  a  soldier,  he  refused  to  enter  the  army 

It  18  said  that  during  these  persecutions— it  is  im-  f ^d  was  beheaded.    Since  d^th  was  not  then  the 

possible  to  state  the  time  correctly— the  Christian  sol-  *«8al  punishment  for  those  who  refused  to  lom  Uie 

diers  of  the  Theban  legion  also  suffered  martyrdom  in  ?™y  ^  u  »!?  Menander,  Digest  XLIX^  xvi,  4  P.  10), 

Agaunum  (St-Maurice,  Canton  of  Valais.  Switzerland)  J*,  wprobable  that  he  was  beh^ed  because  ^  gave 

in  the  then  Diocese  of  Octodurum.     The  Christian  ^^  yT^'?^^ll  ^  T®  ^^^u!  ^  *    "^'        •  ^® 

w\lHl«>rA  nf  thia  lp0-inn  rpfnqpH  fi\  PTPpiifi>  Viin  ni>Hpr<i  ouned  at  t/artnage  oy  tne  noble  matron  rompejana. 

Slo!fw»^^i^,«  oiJ^rl^Vi^^^  ^<*»  ^5-  Aug..  IV.  42M30;    Ruwaht.  Acta  ^iafiurwn 

when  Maximianus,  on  a  march  over  what  is  now  the  (lutiabon.  1859),  609-12;  Lbcxbroq.  L«  MaHyvB,  III  (Paris. 

Great  St.  Bernard,  commanded  them  to  pumsh  the  1904)^  l(KM)4;  TKLLxuom,Mhnotr€9pour9erv%rhl'hid.eocUM, 

Christians  Uving  in  these  districte;  for  this  refusal  the  gi^JJ^ZtoS^S^^ 

legion  was  twice  decimated  by  the  sword,  and,  as  the  (Bae«a,  1632).     (2)  vHa  ae  Uo^'  s\  MaximUiani  in  Pm. 


survivors  held  out  to  the  last,  all  the  soldiers  were  mas-     Script,  rarum  Auatr.,  I,  22-34.  Conoeming  its  value  see  RrxT- 


hard  system  of  taxes  was  to  be  extended  alto  to  Italy  9^A<^  ^^^^^rfiPi^  ^"^JjS^^/iS^I!;  V*  fll  ^™^t, 

and  to"^  Rome,  the  senators  and  the  pretorians  prl  i^j;^rir?SS^l9W)^  ^*^''  ^'  '"'  '^'^"'^'  ^ 

claimed  as  Cssar  M.  Aurelius  Maxentius,  the  son  of  Michael  Ott. 

Maximianus;  the  latter  laid  down  the  purple  at  Milan. 

But  the  new  emperor  proved  to  be  incapable  of  gov-        Mudmiliui  I,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  159^1622,  Elector 

eming,  and  Maximianus,  who  was  popular  with  the  of  Bavaria  and  Lord  High  Steward  of  the  Holy 

army,  was  recalled  to  restore  order  for  the  new  Angus-  Roman  Empire,  162^1651;  b.  at  Munich,  17  April, 

tus.    This  he  did  not  accomplish,  and  the  old  Diocle-  1573;    d.  at  Ingolstadt,  27  September,  1651.    The 

tian,  li  vine  as  a  private  person  in  Salona,  called  a  meet-  lasting  services  he  rendered  his  country  and  the  Cath- 

ing  of  all  the  members  of  the  dvnasties  at  Camimtum  olic   Church  justly  entitle  him  to  the  surname  of 

for  the  end  of  the  vear  307.     Maximianus  had  to  re-  *'  Great ".   He  was  the  son  of  seabus  Catholic  parents, 

nounce  the  purple  for  the  second  time.    He  now  went  William  V,  the  Pious,  of  Bavaria,  and  Renate  of  Lor- 

to  Gaul,  and  gave  his  youngest  daughter  Fausta  in  raine.    Mentally  well  endowed,  Maximilian  received  a 

marria^  to  Constantine.    As  his  hope  to  regain  his  strict  Catholic  training  from  private  tutors  and  later 

former  imperial  dignity  failed  here  also,  he  returned  to  (1587-91)  studied  law,  histo^  and  mathematics  at 

his  son  Maxentius  in  Italy.    Repulsed  by  l^e  latter  the  University  of  Ingolstadt.  He  further  increased  his 

and  spumed  by  Galerius  on  acooimt  of  his  ambitions,  knowledge  by  visits  to  foreign  courts,  as  Prague  and 

be  departed  once  more  for  Gaul  and  donned  the  im-  Naples,  and  to  places  of  pilgrimage  including  Rome, 

perial  piurple  for  the  third  time.    When  the  news  of  Loretto,  and  Einsiedeln.    Thus  equipped  Maximilian 

Constantine's  approach  reached  his  own  soldiers,  they  assumed  (15  Oct.,  1597)  the  ffovemment  of  the  small, 

Burrendered  him  to  his  rival  and  oppjonent  at  Marsilia.  thinly  populated  coimtry  at  nis  father's  wish  during 

Althoui^  Constantine  in  his  generosity  pardoned  him,  the  latter  s  lifetime.   Owing  to  the  over-lenient  rule  <x 


tlie  two  preceding  rulers  the  land  was  burdened  with  a 
he«vy  debt.    By  curtailing  expenditure  and  enlarging 
the  revenues,  cbiefly  by  worlung  the  salt-Dfunea  him- 
aelf  and  by  increasing  tne  taxea  without  regard  to  the 
complaints  of  the  poweriesa  estates,  the  financeB  were 
not  only  brought  inU)  a  better  condition  but  it  was 
nlao  possible  to  collect  a  reserve  fund  which,  in  spite  of 
the  unusually  difficult  conditions  of  the  age,  was  never 
quite  exhausted.    At  the  same  time  internal  order  was 
maintained  by  a  series  of  laws  issued  in  1616.    Haxi' 
mjlian  gave  great  attention  to  military  matters.    No 
Other  German  prince  of  that  time  posaessed  an  army 
BO  well  organticd  and  equipped.    Its  commander  was 
the   veteran   soldier   from   the   Netherlands  Johann 
Tserclaes,  Count  of  Tilly,  who,  austere  himself,  knew 
how  to  maintain  discipline  among  his  troops.     The 
fortifications  at  Ingolstadt  on  the  Danube  were  greatly 
■trengthened,  and  Munich  and  other  towns  were  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  moats. 
Well-fillea  arsenals  were  es- 
tablished in  different  places 
as  preparation  for  time   of 
need.     Opportunity  tor  the 
use  of  this  armament  soon 
offered  itoelf . 

The    small    free    city  of 
Donauwiirtb  fell  under  the 
imperial    ban    for    violating 
the  religious  peace.     In  exe- 
cuting the  imperial  decree 
Haximilian    not    only    suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  tliia  city 
into  subjection    to   Bavaria 
but  also  in  re-establishing  the 
Catholic  Church  as  the  oiie 
and  only  religion  In  it.     This 
led  to  the  forming  (1608)  of 
the    Protestant    Union,    au 
offensive  and  defensive  con- 
federation of  Protestant 
princes,     in     opposition    to 
which  arose  in  1 009  the  Cath- 
olic   League   oiganiicd     by 
Maximilian.    Oddly  enough, 
both  coalitions  were  headed 
by  princes  of  the  Wittelsl)acli 
line;  Maximilian  I  as  head  of 
the  League,  Frederick  IVof 
the  Palatinate,  of  the  Union.    The  Thirty  Years'  War, 
during  which  Bavaria  suffered  terribly,  broke  out  in 
1619.     Under  Tiliy'a  leadership  the  Bohemian  revolt 
was  crushed  at  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain 
(Weisaen  Berg)  near  Prague,  8  November,  1620,  and 
the  newly  elected   King  of  Boheniia,   Frederick  V, 
forced  to  See.    His  allies,  tlie  Margrave  of  Baden  and 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  were  defeated  by  the  forces  of 
Bavaria  and  the  League  at  Wlmpfen  and  Hiichat 
(1622),  aswasalaoata  later  date  (1626)  King  Chris- 
tian of  Denmark.   Conditions,  however,  ctutnged  when 
Maximilian,  through  jealousy  of  the  House  of  Hape- 
burgh,  was  led  in  1630  to  seek  the  dismissal  of  the  head 
of  the   imperial  army,   Wallenatcin.     The  vouthful 
Swedish  king,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  defeated  "tilly.  the 
veteran  leader  of  the  army  of  the  Ix-ague,  at  Brcitcn- 
feld  (1631),  and  in  a  battle  with  (liistavus  .Adolphus 
near  the  Lech,  IS  April,  1632.  Tilly  was  again  van- 
quished, receiving  a  wound  from  which  he  died  two 
weeks  later  at  Ingolstadt.    .Although  the  sirge  of  this 
city  by  the  Swedes  was  unsiiecessful,  Gustavus  plun- 
dered the  Bavarian  towns  and  villages,  laid  waste  the 
country  and  pillaged  Munich. 

Maximilian,  who  since  1623  had  been  both  Elector 
and  ruler  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  implored  Wallen- 
atein,  now  once  more  the  head  of  the  imperial  forces, 
(or  help  in  vain  until  he  agreed  to  place  himself  and 
his  army  under  Wallenstein's  command.  The  united 
forces  under  WallensteiD  took  up  an  entrenched  posi- 


tion near  Nuremberg  where  Wallenatein  repulsed  the 
Swedish  attacks;    by  advancing  towards  Skxony  he 
even  forced  them  to  evacuate  Mawmilian's  territories. 
The  relief  to  Bavaria,  however,  was  not  of  long  dura- 
tion.   After  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  the 
battle  of  Ltltien  (1632)  Bemhard  of  Weimar,  uiuno- 
l^ted  by  Wallenstein,  ravaged  Bavaria  until  he  re- 
ceived a  crushing  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Nordlingen 
(5  Sept.,  1634).    Even  in  the  last  ten  years  of  the  war 
the  country  was  not  spared  from  hostile  attacks. 
Consequently  Haximilian  sought  by  means  of  a  truce 
with  the  enemy  (1647)  to  gain  for  Bavaria  an  oppoi^ 
tunity  to  recover.    The  desired  result,  however,  not 
being  attained,  he  united  his  forces  to  those  of  the 
imperial  army,J)ut  the  allied  troops  were  not  sufficient 
to  overthrow  tne  confederated  French  and  Swedes, 
and  Bavaria  once  more  suffered  all  the  terrors  of  a 
pitiless  invasion.   The  fighting  ended  with  the  capture 
of  the  Swedish  generals,  6 
Oct.,  1648,  and  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  was    signed    at 
HOnster.  24  Oct.  of  the  same 
year.     The  material  benefits 
derived  by  Maximilian  from 
his  attitude  in  politics  were 
meagre:    the  Electoral   dig- 
nity, the  office  of  Lord  Higtt 
Steward,     and    the     I'pper 
Palatinate.    The   abstract 


then  has  Bavaria  had 
the  second  place  among  the 
Catholic  principalities  of  Ger- 
many, ranking  next  to  Aus- 
tria, but  for  centtiriee  a 
strong  bulwark  was  opposed 
to  the  advance  of  Protestant- 
ism, and  the  latter  was,  at 
times,  even  driven  back.  A 
few  years  after  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  and  eighteen 
months  after  the  administra- 
tion of  Bavaria  had  been 
transferred  to  his  still  minor 
son  Ferdinand  Maria,  Maxi- 
□r  Bavaria  milian's   eventful   and   toil- 

some life  closed.  He  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Michael  at  Munich.  A 
fine  equestrian  statue,  iltaigned  by  Thorwaldsen  and 
cast  bv  Stiglmayer,  was  erected  at  Munich  by  King 
Louis"!  in  lS:f9. 

Although  there  was  almost  incessant  war  during  his 
reign,  and  Bavaria  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  was  lilce  a  desert,  nevertheless  Maximilian  did 
much  for  the  arts,  e.  g.  by  building  the  p^ace,  the 
AfarvneSule  (Mary's  Column),  etc.  Learning  also, 
especially  at  the  Univeraity  of  Ingolstadt,  had  m  this 
era  diHtinffuished  representatives.  The  Jesuit  Balde 
was  a  brilliant  writer  both  of  Latin  and  German  verse, 
and  Father  Scheincr,  another  member  of  the  same 
order,  was  the  first  to  discover  the  spots  on  the  sun; 
historians  also,  such  as  Heinrich  Canisius,  Matthftus 
Rader,   etc.,   produced   important   works  of   lasting 

Ma)iimilian,  however,  ^ve  far  more  attention  to 
the  advancement  of  religion  among  the  people  than 

to  art  and  learning.  He  Tounded  five  Jesuit  colleges: 
Amberg,  Burghausen,  Landshut,  Mindelheim,  and 
Straubing.  Besides  establishing  a  monastery  for  the 
Minims  and  one  for  the  Carmelites  at  Munich,  he 
founded  nine  monasteries  for  Franciscans  and  fourteen 
for  Capuchins  who  venerate  him  as  one  of  their  great- 
est benefactors.  He  also  founded  at  Munich  a  home 
for  aged  and  infirm  Court  officials,  and  gave  30,000 
guldens  for  the  Chinese  missions,  as  well  as  laige  sums 
to  the  Scotch-English  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Lijge. 


MAXIMINnS  77  BCAXXBIINinS 

private  charities  amons  the  poor  and  needy  of  all  sius,  "  Apol.  ad  Const.  Imp/\  9).   His  cult  began  right 

descriptions  were  unlimited.  after  his  death.    His  feast  is  celebrated  on  29  May,  on 

Maximilian  was  endowed  with  an  uncommon  ability  which  day  his  name  stands  in  the  martyrologies  of  St. 

for  work.    He  was  also  sincerely  religious  and  rigid ty  Jerome^  St.  Bede,  St.  Ado,  and  others.    Trier  honours 

DQoral  in  conduct;  he  even  went  beyond  the  perniissi-  him  as  its  patroo.    In  the  autumn  of  353  his  body  was 

ble   in   his  efforts  to  uphold  and  spread  the  faith,  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  John  near  Trier,  where  in 

Mfuntatnin^  like  all  pnnces  of  his  time  the  axiom  the  seventh  century  was  founded  the  famous  Benedict 

"Cujus  regio  ejus  rehgio",  he  not  onlv  put  down  tine  Abbey  of  St.  Maximinus,  which  flourished  tiA 

every  movement  in  opposition  to  the  Church  in  his  1802. 

own  country  but  also  exterminated  Calvinism  and  ,  A  life,  full  of  fabuloiw  ac<»unta.  by  a  monk  of  St.  Ma^^ 

Luthemniamroot  and  branch  in  the  territories  he  had  ^^S^^,:^^  S.'SS.'^f^.lfp.ti. fe^S'^'olJ; 

acquired.     Where  admonition  and  instruction  were  p.  L.,  CXIX,  21-24,  and  in  Mon.  Oerm.  Seritk.  remm  Merov., 

not  sufficient  the  soldier  stepped  in,  and  the  poor  peo-  HI.  74-82;  piiiL,  Der  hfUwa  Mjunmintu  und  der  heilwe  Paul- 

pie    who  had  al,«tdy  been  obliged  to  change  tter  £7,M?  25i22S  i?K''J,SSwS2*£T^S  d^"^^ 

faith  several  times  with  change  of  ruler,  had  now  no  hid,,  II  (Paris,  1867),  66-96;  Bbnnbtt  in  Diet.  ChnH.  Biog., 

choice  but  return  to  the  Churcn  or  exile.    Maximilian,  ■•  v.  Michael  Ott. 

in  addition,  never  lost  sight  of  secular  advantage,  as  is 

shown  by  his  numerous  acquisitions  of  territory.    Es-        Maximiims,  Caius  Valerius  Daja,  under  his  uncle 

peciall  V  valuable  was  the  purchase  of  two-thirds  of  the  Augustus  Galerius,  the  Cssar  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 

countstiip  of  Helfenstein,  now  a  part  of  WOrtemberg,  from  the  year  305;   in  307  following  the  example  of 

which  as  a  Bavarian  dependence  was  preserved  to  the  Constantine,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus.    When 

Church  and  has  remained  Catholic  up  to  the  present  Galerius  died  in  311,  the  CsBsar,  Licinius,  set  out  for 

time,  notwithstanding  its  Protestant  surroundings,  the  Hellespont  to  besie^  the  provinces  of  the  Near 

Maximilian  was  twice  married.    The  first  marriage  East.    Maximinus  obtained  tne  sympathy  of  the 

was  childless.    By  his  second  wife  Maria,  daughter  of  population  by  granting  a  remission  of  taxation  to  the 

the  Emperor  Ferainand  II,  whom  he  married  15  July,  threatened   provinces;    also,  he  had  in  his  power 

1635,  he  had  two  sons;  the  elder  of  these,  Ferdinand  Galerius's  widow  and  Valeria,  Diocletian's  daughter. 

Mana,  as  already  mentioned,  succeeded  him.  An  agreement  was  made  fixing  the  .£gean  Sea  and 

QrarM,  MaximUian  Im  AUaem,iUi^^  (1885),  the  Straits  between  Europe  and  Asia  as  the  boun- 

21  aq.,  cives  bibboffraphy  before  1885;   of.  the  statements  in  Jo-:«n  ^f  4.U0  ,irtmi«ir»Tia  anH  oa  nn  now  P»sora  nmm 

VGulij^Bniwckelunotgachichte  Bayem».  I  (2nd  ed..  1908).—  oanes  Of  the  domimons  and  as  no  new  Caesars  were 

HAouDfeJ9dbMrwiarf«-06CT7>/aZ«(2vola..  1903);  Rabel.Dm  appointed,  there  Were  three  legal  emperors.    Thus 

^iemaiige  Bentdiktiner^AddHxfi  WeU^     in  JahH>.  deaHuL  Diocletian's  plan  of  governing  the  empire  was  aban- 

te2l£:r*1?siir^ZS?'i'^4:"^^^  don«l.    Ma«n,inus,  a  fanatical  idolater  and  tyrant, 

i693-t90t  (1902).— Deutinoer.  BeUrUge  fur  OnchicMe  de$  Continued  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  m  his 

EnbiaihwnM  Miknehm^Freinnq,    Vew    Senm,    I    (1901).—  part  of  the  empire  with  especial  Severity  and  persis- 

^iJ^-MlSS'n  SSSSrfJlSStl,^  rTu^LSS^h  tency.  even  where  the  cruel  Galerius  had  ceaaeT  Be- 
(1876),  164  sqq.;  0>br&ard,  Prieit  d'hiatoire  modeme  d  con-  Sides  sangmnaiy  measures  for  the  suppression  of 
umporaine,  36  sqq.  PiUB  WiTTMANN.  (3iristianity,  he  made  attempts  to  estabhsh  in  both 
^  .  ,  _,  „.  ,  -,-,.,  «...  town  and  coimtry  a  heathen  organisation  similar  to 
MazunmnB,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Tner,  b.  at  Silly  near  the  Christian  Church.  The  emperor  made  the  hea- 
Poitiers,  d.  there,  29  May,  352  or  12  Se[rt.,  349.  He  then  high-priests  and  magicians  of  equal  rank  with  the 
was  educated  and  ordwned  pnestby  St.  Agntius,  governors  of  provinces.  His  attempt  to  achieve  re- 
whom  he  succeeded  as  Bishop  of  Tner  m  332  or  335.  nown  by  a  war  against  the  Persians  in  Armenia  was 
At  that  time  Trier  was  the  government  seat  of  the  frustrated  by  pestilence  and  bad  harvests  (Eusebius). 
Western  Emperor  and,  by  force  of  his  office,  Maxi-  when  Constantine  and  Licinius  published  the  edict  of 
mmuB  stood  m  close  relation  with  the  Emperors  Con-  toleration  for  the  Christians  at  Milan  in  312,  and 
stantine  II  and  Constens.  He  was  a  strenuous  de-  Maximmus  was  asked  to  promulgate  it  in  his  part  of 
fender  of  the  orthodox  faith  against  Ananism  and  an  the  empire,  he  did  so.  because  he  saw  clearly  that  it 
intimate  friend  of  St.  Athanasius,  whom  he  harboured  was  directed  against  his  anti-Christian  policy.  When 
as  an  honoured  guest  dunn§  his  exile  of  two  years  and  in  the  winter  of  312  Constantine's  Gallic  troops  were 
four  months  (336-8)  at  Tner.  He  likewise  received  withdrawn  from  Italy,  and  Licmius  was  still  at  Milan, 
with  honours  the  banished  patriarch  Paul  of  Constan-  lifeximinus  pushed  on  by  forced  marches  to  the  capital, 
tinople  in  341  and  effected  his  recall  to  Constantinople.  Byzantium,  and  captured  it  together  with  Heraclea. 
When  four  Anan  bishops  came  from  Antioch  to  Tner  Licinius,  taken  by  surprise,  offered  to  make  terms  with 
in  342  with  the  pivpose  of  winmng  Emperor  Constans  him,  which  Maximinus  trusting  to  gain  an  easy  victory 
to  their  side,  Maximinus  refused  to  receive  them  and  refused.  Contrary  to  his  expectation,  and  in  spite  of 
induced  the  emperor  to  reject  their  proposals.  In  con-  the  superiority  in  numbere  of  his  troops,  he  was  de- 
junction  with  Pope  Juh^  I  and  Bishop  Hosius  of  Cor-  feated  near  Adrianople,  30  April,  313,  and  fled  precip- 
dova,  he  persuaded  the  Emperor  Constans  to  convene  itately  to  Nicomedia  to  endeavour  to  rally  his  army, 
the  Synod  of  Sardica  in  343  and  probably  took  part  in  Licinius  harassing  him  incessantly,  published  an  edict 
it.  That  the  Anans  considered  him  as  one  of  their  of  toleration  for  the  Christians  of  Nicomedia  so  that 
chief  opponents  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  con-  Maximinus  was  obliged  to  withdraw  to  the  Taurus 
demned  him  by  name  along  with  Pope  Julius  I  and  where  he  entrenched  himself  in  the  passes.  He  then 
H06IUS  of  Cordova  at  their  heretical  synod  of  Philip-  tried  to  win  the  Christians  by  issuing  an  edict  of  tole- 
popolism  343  (Man8i,"Sacrorum  Cone,  nova  ctampl.  ration;  but  his  military  situation  was  hopeless  and 
CoU."  III,1368<^.).  In  345  he  took  part  m  the  Synod  he  took  poison  (313).  Licinius  exterminated  the 
of  Milan  and  is  said  to  have  presided  over  a  synod  held  Jovian  family,  murdering  all  the  relatives  of  Diocletian 
at  Cologne  in  346,  where  Bishop  Euphratas  of  Cologne  who  were  at  the  court  of  Maximin.  The  edicts  of  the 
was  deposed  on  account  of  his  leanings  towards  Arian-  deceased  emperor  were  cancelled,  and  decrees  favour- 
ism.  [Onceming  the  authenticity  of  the  Acts  of  this  able  to  the  Christians  were  now  promul^ted  in  the 
synod  see  the  new  French  translation  of  Hefele's  **  Con-  East. 

Clliengeschichte ",  I,  ii  (Paris,  19()7),  pp.  830-34.]     He         Schzllbr.  Oeach.  der  Hhniaehen  KaimrwH.  II  (Gotha.  1887). 
also  sent  Sts.  Castor  and  Lubentius  as  missionaries  to  Karl  Hobber. 

the  valleys  of  the  Mosel  and  the  Lahn.    It  is  doubtful 

whether  the  Maximinus  whom  the  usurper  Ikbignen-        MazimiiiTis  Thraz,  Caius  Julius  Verus,  Roman 

this  sent  as  le^te  to  Constantinople  in  the  interests  of  Emperor  235-^,  son  of  a  Goth  and  an  Alanic  mother. 

18  identical  with  the  Bishop  of  Trier  (Athana-  When  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus  was  returning 


MAXDKOPOLIS 


78 


through  Thrace  in  202,  Maximinus,  a  shepherd  of 
enormous  stature  and  strength,  distinguished  himself 
in  a  contest  with  the  solaiers  by  such  Herculean 
strength  and  bravery  that  the  emperor  enrolled  him 
in  the  Roman  body-guard.  Befusmg  to  serve  imder 
the  wortiiless  emperors,  BCacrinus  and  Heliop^balus, 
he  withdrew  from  the  army;  but  under  the  righteous 
Alexander  Severus  he  was  entrusted  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  newly  raised  Pannonian  troops.  These, 
desiring  a  real  warrior  at  their  head  instead  of  the 
youthful  and  timid  Alexander,  who  was  entirely  sub- 
ject to  his  mother  Julia  Mamsea,  invested  him  with  the 
purple  at  Mains,  in  Bfarch,  235,  at  the  same  time  pro- 
claimixi^  his  son  Bfaximus  co-regent.  The  adherents 
of  the  mrmer  Qjrrian  dynasty  and  of  the  senate  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  overthrow  him.  Maximinus  taking 
the  field  wilii  great  energy  and  persistence  against  the 
Germans  across  the  Rhine,  regamed  the  district  of  the 
Agri  Decumatea  and  then  wa^ed  successful  war  against 
tlie  Sarmatians  and  the  Dacians  on  the  Danube.  As- 
suming the  names  of  Germanicus  and  Sarmaticus,  he 
proceeded  with  sentences  of  death  and  confiscation 
against  the  patrician  Romans,  who  disliked  him  as 
a  wild  and  uncultured  barbarian;  on  the  other  hand 
he  distributed  the  State  revenues  among  the  soldiers 
who  were  devoted  to  him.  He  had  the  bronse  statues 
of  the  gods  and  their  treasures  melted  down  and 
coined;  lie  plundered  cities  and  temples,  and  caused 
so  much  discontent  that  a  rebellion  broke  out  in 
February,  238,  among  the  peasantry  in  Africa.  The 
procurator  and  the  octogenarian  consul  at  Carthage 
were  killed. 

M.  AntoniuB  Gordianus  and  his  son  of  the  same 
name,  were  made  co-regent  emperors.  The  Roman 
senate  willingly  recognized  them,  because  they  prom- 
ised, like  the  Antonines  in  former  times,  to  ^vem  ac- 
coraing  to  its  decisions;  the  people  despising  Maxi- 
minus, who  had  never  once  set  foot  in  tne  capital  of 
the  empire,  agreed  with  the  senate.  Maximinus  was 
outlawed,  and  his  death  was  rumoured,  but  he  sent 
Oapellianus,  Procurator  of  Numidia,  a^inst  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Gordiani,  and  in  the  struggle,  the 
younger  Gordian  lost  his  life  whereupon  the  senior 
hanged  himself  in  despair.  Their  reign  had  lasted 
little  more  than  a  month.  The  senate  now  decided  to 
elect  two  emperors  with  equal  authority,  M.  Clodius 
Pupienus  Maximus  who  was  to  exercise  the  military 
power  de  facto,  and  Decimus  Cslius  Balbinus  who  was 
to  direct  the  civil  government  in  the  capital.  The 
Romans  dissatisfied  with  this  arrangement,  for  they 
had  expected  great  advantages  from  the  rule  of  the 
African  emperors,  raised  to  the  rank  of  Csesar  the  elder 
Gordian's  twelve  year  old  grandson  (afterwards  Gor- 
dian III),  then  residing  in  Rome.  Severe  street  fight- 
ins  occuired  in  Rome  between  the  veterans  of  Maxi- 
minus and  the  people.  Owing  to  scanty  commissariat 
Maximinus  could  only  move  his  troops  slowly  from 
Pannonia.  Meanwhile  the  senate  levied  troops,  con- 
structed arsenals,  and  by  creating  twenty  military 
districts,  placed  Italy  in  a  satisfactory  defensive  posi- 
tion. When  Maximinus  arrived  in  Upper  Italy,  he 
could  not  at  once  cross  the  Isonso  on  account  of  the 
floods  and  his  attacks  on  the  stronghold  of  Aquileia 
were  repulsed.  Under  the  foolish  impression  that  his 
officers  were  the  cause  of  his  misfortunes,  he  had 
several  of  them  executed,  thereby  arousing  discontent 
among  the  soldiers,  especially  in  the  Second  Parthian 
Legion  whose  wives  and  children  were  in  the  power  of 
the  Roman  Senate  at  Albano.  A  mutiny  suddenly 
occurring,  Maximin  and  his  son  were  murdered. 
Pupienus,  who  hastened  thither  from  Ravenna,  re- 
warded the  troops  liberally  and  administered  to  them 
the  oath  of  fidehty  on  belialf  of  the  three  senator  em- 
perors resident  in  Rome. 

MoMUBBif.  Romi$ehe  OeachiehU,  V  (Beriin.  1885):  Schiller 
Oeach.  <L  rUm.  KaUerzeit,  voL  I*  pt.  II  (Gotha,  1883);  Doma- 

WBKI,  099ch.  der  rdm.  KaxteneU.  U  (Leipsig.  1900). 

Kabl  Hoebeb. 


MttdmopoUs,  a  titular  see  of  Arabia,  suffragan  of 
Bostra.  The  true  name  of  the  city  is  Maximianopolis, 
and  it  so  appears  in  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of 
the  Patriarch  Anastasius  in  the  sixth  century  ("  Echos 
d'Orient",  X,  Paris,  1907, 145).  Pursuant  to  a  decree 
of  the  Propajbinda  (1885),  the  title  is  to  be  suppi 


in  future;  Torquato  ArmeUini  having  comfounded 
this  town  with  Maximianopolis  in  Palestina  Secunda 
C*  Catalogo  dei  vescovati  titolari",  Rome^  1884,  appen- 
dix 8).  Its  last  titular  was  eonseeratedm  1876.  Two 
ancient  bishops  of  this  see  are  known :  Severus,  a  signa- 
tory of  the  Council  of  Chaloedon  in  451  (Mansi,  "  ColL 

known  by  an  inscription 
grecques  et  latines  de 
2361).  The  name  which 
preceded  that  of  Maximianopolis  is  not  known,  and  we 
are  equally  ignorant  of  its  actual  identification,  though 
many  authorities  place  it  at  Sheikh-Mitddn,  a  locality 
in  the  Hauran,  famous  for  the  extent  and  beauty  of  its 
ruins,  where  an  inscription  has  been  found  bearing  the 
name  of  Bishop  Thomas  ("  Bulletin  de  oorresp.  heU6- 
nique,"  Paris,  1897,  52).  8.  YjoiMt, 

Hazimiu  of  Oonitmntiiiiople,  Saint,  known  as  the 
Theologian  and  as  Maximus  Confessor,  b.  at  Con- 
stantinople about  580;  d.  in  exile  13  August,  662.  He 
is  one  of  the  chief  names  in  the  Monothehte  controversy, 
one  of  the  chief  doctors  of  the  theology  of  the  Incarna- 
tion and  of  ascetic  mvsticism,  and  remaikable  as  a  wit- 
ness to  the  respect  ror  the  papacy  held  by  the  Gredc 
Church  in  his  day.  This  great  man  was  of  a  noble 
family  of  Constantinople.  He  became  first  secretary 
to  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  who  prised  him  much;  but 
he  (quitted  the  world  and  gave  himself  up  to  contem- 
plation in  a  monastery  at  Chrysopolis,  opposite  Con- 
stantinople. He  became  abbot  tnere;  but  seems  to 
have  left  this  retreat  on  account  of  its  msecurity  from 
hostile  attacks.  He  speaks  of  the  Palestinian  ascetic, 
St.  Sophronius,  afterwards  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  as 
his  master,  father,  and  teacher  (Ep.  13),  so  that  he 
probably  passed  some  time  with  him,  and  he  was  with 
nim  in  Africa  with  other  monks  during  the  prepara- 
tions which  issued  in  the  "watery  union"  by  which 
Cyrus  the  Patriarch  reconciled  a  number  ai  Monophy- 
sites  to  the  Church  by  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  ''two 
operations"  in  Christ  (see  Monothsusm).  The  first 
action  of  St.  Maximus  that  we  know  of  in  this  affair  is 
a  letter  sent  by  him  to  Pyrrhus,  then  an  abbot  at  Chry- 
sopolis, a  friend  and  supporter  of  Sergius.  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  the  patron  of  the  Monotnelite  expres- 
sion "  two  operations".  As  the  letter  is  said  to  nave 
entailed  a  long  voyage  on  the  monks  who  earned  it, 
St.  Maximus  was  perhaps  already  in  Africa  when  he 
wrote  it.  Pyrrhus  had  published  a  work  on  the  Incar- 
nation, for  which  St.  Maximus  gives  him  rather  ful- 
some praise,  as  an  introduction  to  the  question  (which 
he  puts  with  much  diffidence  and  many  excuses)  what 
Pyrrhus  means  by  one  iw^pyma  or  iwiftyrutA,  Maxi- 
mus is  clearly  anxious  to  get  him  to  withdraw  or  ex- 
plain the  mistaken  expression,  without  exasperating 
nim  by  contradiction. 

The  Ecthesis  of  HeracUus  was  published  in  638,  and 
Sergius  and  Pope  Honorius  both  died  in  that  year.  A 
letter  of  Maximus  tells  us  on  the  authority  of  his 
friends  at  Constantinople,  that  the  Roman  apocrisiarii 
who  had  come  thither  to  obtain  the  emperor's  confir- 
mation for  the  newly  elected  Pope  Sevennus,  were  met 
by  the  clergy  of  Constantinople  with  ^le  demand  that 
they  should  promise  to  obtam  the  pope's  signature  to 
the  Ecthesis,  otherwise  they  should  receive  no  assist* 
ance  in  the  matter  for  which  they  had  made  so  long  a 
voyage:  ''Having  discovered  the  tenor  of  the  docu- 
ment, since  by  refusing  they  would  have  caused  the 
first  and  Mother  of  Churehes,  and  the  city,  to  remain 
so  long  a  time  in  widowhood,  they  replied  quietly:  We 
cannot  act  with  authority  in  this  matter,  for  we  have 
received  a  commission  to  execute,  not  an  order  to 


MAXatUB                            79  MA3EIMU8 

flttke  a  profesBion  of  faith.    But  we  assure  you  that  Ecthesis:  "they  have  not  conformed  to  the  sense  of 

we  wiU  relate  all  that  you  have  put  forward,  and  we  the  Apostolic  see,  and  what  is  laughable,  or  rather 

will  show  the  document  itself  to  him  who  is  to  be  con-  lamentable,  as  provmg  their  ignorance,  they  have  not 

secrated,  and  if  he  should  judge  it  to  be  correct,  we  will  hesitated  to  lie  against  the  Apostolic  see  itself  .  .  . 

aak  hun  to  append  his  signature  to  it.    But  do  not  but  have  claimed  the  great  Honorius  on  their  side. 

therefore  place  any  obstacle  in  our  way  now,  or  do  ...  What  did  the  divine  Honorius  do,  and  after  him 

▼iol»aoe  to  us  by  delaying;  us  and  keeping  us  here.  For  the  aged  Severinus,  and  John  who  foUowed  him?  Yet 

none  has  a  rig^t  to  use  violence  especiaUy  when  faith  further,  what  supplication  has  the  blessed  p^)e,  who 

is  in  question.    For  herein  even  the  weakest  waxes  now  sits,  not  made?    Have  not  the  whole  £ast  and 

mighty  and  the  meek  becomes  a  warrior,  apd  by  com-  West  brought  their  tears,  laments,  obsecrations,  dep- 

forting  his  soul  with  the  Divine  Wora,  is  hardened  recations,  both  before  God  in  prayer  and  before  men 

against  the  greatest  attack.    How  much  more  in  the  in  their  letters?   If  the  Roman  see  recognizes  Pyrrhus 

case  of  the  derpy  and  Church  of  the  Romans,  which  to  be  not  only  a  reprobate  but  a  heretic,  it  is  certainly 

from  of  old  until  now,  as  the  elder  of  all  the  Cnurches  plain  that  everyone  who  anathematizes  those  who 

under  the  sun,  presides  over  all?    Having  surely  re-  nave  rejected  Pvrrhus,  anathematizes  the  see  of  Rome. 

oeived  this  canonically,  as  well  from  councils  and  the  that  is,  he  anathematizes  the  Catholic  Church.   I  need 

Apostles,  as  from  the  princes  of  the  latter,  and  bNeing  hardly  add  that  he  excommunicates  himself  also,  if 

numbered  in  their  company,  she  is  subject  to  no  writ*  indeed  he  be  in  communion  with  the  Roman  see  and 

]n0B  or  issues  of  synodical  documents,  on  account  of  the  Church  of  God.  ...  It  is  not  right  that  one  who 

the  eminence  of  her  pontificate,  even  as  in  all  these  has  been  condemned  and  cast  out  by  the  Apostolic  see 

things  all  are  equally  subject  to  her  according  to  sacer-  of  the  dty  of  Rome  for  his  wrong  opinions  should  be 

dotal  law.    And  so  when  without  fear  but  with  all  named  with  any  kind  of  honour,  until  he  be  received 

holv  and  becoming  confidence,  those  ministers  of  the  by  her,  having  returned  to  her — nay,  to  our  Lord — by 

truly  finn  and  immovable  rock,  that  is.  of  the  most  a  pious  confession  and  orthodox  faith,  by  which  he  can 

great  and  Apostolic  Church  at  Rome,  haa  so  replied  to  receive  holiness  and  the  title  of  holy.  .  .  .  Let  him 

the  dergy  ot  the  royal  city,  they  were  seen  to  have  con-  hasten  before  all  things  to  satisfy  the  Roman  see,  for 

ciliated  them  and  to  have  acted  prudently,  that  the  if  it  is  satisfied  all  will  agree  in  calling  him  pious  and 

others  might  be  humble  and  modest,  while  they  made  orthodox.    For  he  only  speaks  in  vain  who  thinks  he 

known  the  orthodoxy  and  purity  of  their  own  faith  ought  to  persuade  or  entrap  persons  like  myself,  and 

from  the  beginning.    But  those  of  Constantinople,  ad-  does  not  satisfy  and  implore  the  blessed  pope  of  the 

miring  their  piety,  thought  that  such  a  deed  ought  to  most  holy  Church  of  the  Romans,  that  is.  tne  Apos- 

be  recompensed;  and  ceasing  from  ur^g  the  docu-  tolic  see,  which  from  the  incarnate  Son  ot  God  Him- 

ment  on  tnem,  they  promised  by  their  diligence  to  pro-  self,  and  also  by  all  holy  synods,  according  to  the  holy 

cure  the  issue  of  the  emperor's  order  with  regard  to  canons  and  definitions,  has  received  universal  and 

the  episcopal  election  .  .  .  Of  the  aforesaid  docuxnent  supreme  dominion,  authority  and  power  of  binding 

a  copy  has  been  sent  to  ine  also.    They  have  explained  and  loosing  over  all  the  holy  Churches  of  God  which  are 

in  it  the  cause  for  being  silent  about  the  natural  opera-  in  the  whole  world ;  for  with  it  the  Word  who  is  above 

tions  in  Christ  our  God^  that  is,  in  His  natures,  of  the  celestial  powers  binds  and  looses  in  heaven  also. 

which  and  in  which  He  is  believed  to  be;  and  how  in  For  if  he  thinks  he  must  satisfy  others,  and  fails  to 

future  neither  one  nor  two  are  to  be  mentioned.    It  is  implore  the  most  blessed  Roman  pope,  he  is  acting  like 

only  to  be  allowed  to  confess  ihat  the  divine  and  hu-  a  man  who,  when  accused  of  munler  or  some  other 

man  (works)  proceeded  from  the  same  Word  of  God  crime,  does  not  hasten  to  prove  his  innocence  to  the 

incarnate,  and  are  to  be  attributed  to  one  and  the  judge  appointed  by  the  law,  but  only  uselessly  and 

same  (person)."  This  passage  does  not  call  the  prohibi-  without  profit  does  his  best  to  demooistrate  his  inno- 

tion  m  "two  operations"  yet  by  the  name  of  heresy,  cenoe  to  private  individuals,  who  have  no  power  to 

and  does  not  mention  the    one  Will "  confessed  in  tne  acquit  him." 

Ecthesis.    But  it  gives  very  clearly  St.  Maximus's  fvrrhus  thought  he  might  regain  his  see  by  the  help 

view  that  the  smallest  point  of  faith  is  to  be  held  at  the  of  tne  pope.    He  came  to  Africa,  and  in  July,  645,  a 

risk  of  one's  life,  and  it  demonstrates  the  ample  admis-  public  disputation  took  place  between  him  and  Maxi- 

■ion  made  at  Constantinople,  before  the  struggles  be-  mus,  in  the  presence  of  the  Governor  Gregory  (called 

gan,  of  the  prerogatives  (h  Rome.  George  in  the  MSS.  of  St.  Maximus),  who  was  a  friend 

When  in  641  John  IV  wrote  his  defence  of  Pope  and  correspondent  of  the  saint.    The  minutes  are  in- 

Honorius,  it  was  re-echoed  by  St.  Maximus  in  a  letter  teresting.    Pyrrhus  argues  that  two  wills  must  imply 

toMarinu8,apriestof  Csrprus.  He  declares  that  Hono-  two  Persons  willing;  Maximus  replies  that  in  that  case 

rius,  when  he  confessed  one  will  of  our  Lord,  only  there  must  be  three  wills  in  the  Holy  Trinity.    He 

meant  to  deny  that  Christ  had  a  will  of  the  flesh,  of  shows  that  the  will  belongs  to  the  Natiire,  and  distin- 

ooncupisoence^  since  he  was  conceived  and  bom  with-  guishes  between  will  as  a  faculty  and  will  as  the  act  of 

out  stain  of  sm.    Maximus  appeals  to  the  witness  of  the  faculty.    Pyrrhus  then  admits  two  wills,  on  ao- 

Abbot  John  Symponus,  who  wrote  the  letter  for  Hono-  count  of  the  two  natures,  but  adds  that  we  should  also 

rius.   Pyrrhus  was  now  Sergius's  successor,  but  on  the  confess  one  wUl  on  account  of  the  perfect  union, 

accession  of  the  Emperor  Constans  in  642  he  was  Maximus  replies  that  this  would  lead  us  to  confess  one 

exiled.    Maximus  then  sent  a  letter  to  the  patrician  nature  on  account  of  the  perfect  union.    He  then  cites 

Peter,  apparently  the  Governor  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  many  passages  of  Scripture  for  two  wills  and  two  oper- 

who  haa  written  to  him  concerning  Pyrrhus,  whom  he  ations.    Pyrrhus  puts  forward  Honorius  and  Vigilius. 

now  calls  simply  abbot.    Pyrrhus  was  in  Palestine.  Maximus  defends  the  former  from  the  charge  of  teach- 

and  Peter  had  restrained  him  from  putting  forward  ing  two  wUls,  and  denies  that  the  latter  ever  received 

his  heretical  views.   Pyrrhus  had  declared  that  he  was  ihe  letter  of  Mennas,  the  authenticity  of  which  is 

ready  to  satisfy  Maximus  as  to  his  orthodoxy.    The  assumed.     He  complains  of  the  changeableness  of 

latter  says  he  would  have  written  to  Peter  before,  Sergius.    Lastly  the  famous  "new  theandric  opera- 

''but  I  was  afraid  of  being  thought  to  transgress  the  tion"  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  is  discussed,  and  is 

holy  laws,  if  I  were  to  do  this  without  knowing  the  explained  and  defended  by  St.  Maximus.    Then  Pyr- 

will  of  the  most  holy  see  of  ApoBtoUc  men.  who  lead  rhus  gives  in,  and  consents  to  go  to  Rome,  where  in 

aright  the  whole  plenitude  of  the  Catholic  Cnurch,  and  fact  he  condemned  his  former  teaching,  and  was  recon- 

mle  it  with  order  according  to  the  divine  law."    The  ciled  to  the  Church  by  the  pope.    But  the  revolt  of 

new  Ecthesis  is  worse  than  the  old  heresies;  Pyrrhus  Gregory,  who  made  himself  emperor  in  Africa,  but  was 

and  his  predecessor  have  accused  Sophronius  of  error;  defeated  in  647,  brought  Maximus  into  disfavour  at 

they  persuaded  Heraclius  to  give  nis  name  to  the  court,  and  destroyed  the  hope  of  restoring  Pyrrhus  as 


MAITTMnH 


80 


UAZIMU8 


orthodox  patriarch.  After  the  Ecthesis  had  been  with- 
drawn, and  the  Type,  T&rot,  substituted  by  the  Ihn- 
peror  Constans,  St.  Maximus  was  present  at  the  great 
Lateran  council  held  by  St.  Martin  at  his  instance  in 
649.  He  wrote  from  Rome  (where  he  staved  some 
years) :  "The  extremities  of  the  earth,  and  all  in  everv 
part  of  it  who  purely  and  rightly  confess  the  Lord, 
look  directly  towards  the  most  holy  Roman  Church 
and  its  confession  and  faith,  as  it  were  to  a  sun  of  un- 
failing light,  awaiting  from  it  the  bright  radiance  of 
the  sacred  aogmas  of  our  Fathers,  according  to  what 
the  six  inspired  and  holy  councils  have  purely  and 
piously  decreed,  declaring  most  expressly  the  symbol 
of  faitn.  For  from  the  coming  down  of  the  incarnate 
Word  amongst  us,  aU  the  Churches  in  every  part  of  the 
world  have  held  that  greatest  Church  alone  as  their 
base  and  foundation,  seeing  that  according  to  the 
promise  of  Christ  our  Saviour,  the  gates  of  hell  do 
never  prevail  against  it,  that  it  has  the  keys  of  a  right 
or-^f ession  and  faith  in  Him,  that  it  opens  the  true  and 
only  religion  to  such  as  approach  with  piety,  and  shuts 
up  and  locks  everv  heretical  mouth  that  speaks  injus- 
tice against  the  Most  High." 

Pope  Martin  was  dragged  from  Rome  in  653,  and 
died  of  ill  treatment  at  Inkerman  in  March^  655.  It 
was  probably  later  in  that  year  that  an  official  named 
Gregory  came  to  Rome  to  get  Pope  Eugene  to  receive 
the  Type.  He  came  to  the  cell  of  St.  Maximus,  who 
argued  with  him  and  denoxmced  the  Type.  As  the 
saint  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  orthodox 
Easterns,  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  at  the  end  of 
655  (not^  as  is  commonly  stated,  at  tne  same  time  as 
St.  Martm) .  He  was  now  seventy-five  years  old.  The 
acts  of  his  trials  have  been  preserved  by  Anastasius 
Bibliothecarius.  He  was  accused  of  conspiring  with 
the  usurper  Gregory,  together  with  Pope  Theodore, 
and  it  was  said  that  he  had  caused  the  loss  to  the 
empire  of  Egypt,  Alexandria,  Pentapolis,  and  Africa. 
He  refused  to  communicate  with  the  See  of  Constanti- 
nople, "  because  the^  have  cast  out  the  four  holy  coun- 
cils by  the  propositions  made  at  Alexandria,  by  the 
Ecthesis  ana  by  the  Type  ...  and  because  the  dog- 
mas which  they  asserted  in  the  propositions  they 
damned  in  the  Ecthesis,  and  what  tney  proclaimed  in 
the  Ecthesis  they  anniilled  in  the  Type,  and  on  each 
occasion  they  deposed  themselves.  What  mysteries, 
I  ask,  do  they  celebrate,  who  have  condemned  them- 
selves, and  have  been  condemned  by  the  Romans  and 
by  the  (Lateran)  ^rnod.  and  stripped  of  their  sacer- 
dotal dignity?"  He  disoelieved  the  statement  made 
to  him  that  the  envo^rs  of  the  pope  had  accepted  the 
confession  of  "two  wills  on  account  of  the  aiversity 
and  one  will  on  account  of  the  union  ",  and  pointed  out 
that  the  union  not  being  a  substance  could  have  no 
will.  He  wrote  on  this  account  to  his  disciple  the 
Abbot  Anastasius,  who  was  able  to  send  a  letter  to 
warn  "  the  men  of  elder  Rome  firm  &a  a  rock  "  of  the 
deceitful  confession  which  the  Patriareh  Peter  was 
despatching  to  the  pope.  On  the  day  of  the  first  trial, 
a  council  of  clergy  was  held,  and  the  emperor  was  per- 
suaded to  send  Maximus  to  Byzia  in  Tnrace.  and  his 
disciples.  Abbot  Anastasius  and  Anastasius  the  papal 
apocrisiarius,  to  Perberis  and  Mesembria. 

They  suffered  greatly  from  cold  and  hunger.  On  24 
September,  656,  Theodosius,  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in 
Bithynia,  visited  Maximus  by  the  emperor's  com- 
mand, accompanied  by  the  consuls,  Theodosius  and 
Paul.  The  saint  confounded  his  visitors  with  the 
authority  of  the  Fathers,  and  declared  that  he  would 
never  accept  the  Type.  The  bishop  then  replied: 
"  We  declare  to  you  m  response  that  if  you  will  com- 
municate, our  master  the  emperor  will  annul  the 
Type."  Maximus  answered  that  the  Ecthesis,  though 
tsucen  down,  had  not  been  disowned,  and  that  the 
canons  of  the  Lateran  Council  must  be  formally  ac- 
cepted before  he  would  communicate.  The  Byzantine 
biwop  unblushin^y  urged:  "The  ^ynod  is  invalid, 


since  it  was  held  without  the  Emperor's  orders." 
Maximus  retorts :"  If  it  is  not  pious  faith  but  the  order 
of  the  emperor  that  validates  synods,  let  them  accept 
the  synods  that  were  held  against  the  Homoousion  at 
TVre,  at  Antioch,  at  Seleucia,  and  the  Robber  coimcil 
of  Ephesus."  The  bishop  is  ready  to  consent  to  two 
wills  and  two  operations:  but  St.  Maximus  says  he  is 
himself  but  a  monk  and  cannot  receive  his  declaration; 
tiie  bishop,  and  also  the  emperor,  and  the  patriarch 
and  his  synod,  must  send  a  supplication  to  the  pope. 
Then  all  arose  with  joy  and  tears,  and  knelt  down  and 
prayed,  and  kissed  the  Gospels  and  the  crucifix  and 
the  image  of  the  Mother  oi  God,  and  all  embraced. 
But  the  consul  doubted:  "Do  you  think,"  he  said 
"that  the  emperor  will  make  a  supplication  to 
Rome?"  "Yes'',  said  the  abbot,  "if  he  will  humble 
himself  as  God  has  humbled  Himself."  The  bishop 
gave  him  money  and  a  timic;  but  the  tunic  was  seized 
by  the  Bishop  of  Byzia.  On  8  September,  the  abbot 
was  honouraoly  sent  to  Rhegium,  and  next  day  two 
patricians  arrived  in  state  with  Bishop  Theodosius, 
and  offered  the  saint  great  honour  if  he  would  accept 
the  Type  and  communicate  with  the  emperor.  Maod- 
mus  solemnly  turned  to  the  bishop  and  reminded  him 
of  the  day  of  judgment.  "What  could  I  do  if  the 
emperor  took  anoUier  view?"  whispered  the  misera- 
ble man.  The  abbot  was  struck  ana  spat  upon.  The 
patrician  Epiphanius  declared  that  all  now  accepted 
two  wills  and  two  operations,  and  that  the  Tyne  was 
only  a  compromise.  Maximus  reiterated  the  Roman 
view  that  to  forbid  the  use  of  an  expression  was  to 
deny  it.  Next  morning,  19  September,  the  saint  was 
stripped  of  his  money  and  even  of  his  poor  stock  of 
clotnes,  and  was  conveyed  to  Salembria,  and  thence 
to  Perberis  (Perbera). 

Six  years  later,  in  662,  Maximus  and  the  two  Anas- 
tasii  were  brought  to  trial  at  Constantinople.  They 
were  anathematized,  and  with  them  St.  Martin  and 
St.  Sophronius.  The  prefect  was  ordered  to  beat 
them,  to  cut  out  their  tongues  and  lop  off  their  right 
hands,  to  exhibit  them  thus  mutilated  in  every  quar- 
ter of  the  city,  and  to  send  them  to  perpetual  exile  and 
imprisonment.  A  long  letter  of  the  Roman  Anastasius 
tells  us  of  their  sufferings  on  the  journey  to  Colchis 
where  they  were  imprisoned  in  different  forts.  He 
tells  us  that  St.  Maximus  foresaw  in  a  vision  the  day 
of  his  deatJi,  and  that  miraculous  lights  appeared 
nightly  at  his  tomb.  The  monk  Anastasius  had  died 
in  the  preceding  month;  the  Roman  lived  on  until 
666. 

Thus  St.  Maximus  died  for  orthodoxv  and  obedience 
to  Rome.  He  has  always  been  considered  one  of  the 
chief  theological  writers  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  has 
obtained  the  honourable  title  of  the  Theologian.  He 
may  be  said  to  complete  and  close  the  series  of  patris- 
tic writings  on  the  Incarnation,  as  thejr  are  simimed  up 
by  St.  John  of  Damascus.  His  style  is  unfortunately 
very  obscure;  but  he  is  accurate  in  his  thought  and 
deeply  learned  in  the  Fathers.  His  exeeetical  works 
explain  Holy  Scripture  allegorically.  we  have  com- 
mentaries on  Psalm  lix,  on  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
a  number  of  explanations  of  different  texts.  These  are 
principaUv  intended  for  the  use  of  monks,  and  deal 
much  with  mystical  theolo^.  More  professedlv  mys- 
tical are  his  "Scholia"  on  Pseudo-Dionysius,  his  ex- 
Slanations  of  difficulties  in  Dionysius  and  St.  Gregory 
fazianzen  and  his  "  Ambigua"  on  St.  Gregory.  This 
last  work  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Scotus  Erigena 
at  the  request  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  polemical 
writings  include  short  treatises  against  the  Mono|^iy- 
sites,  and  a  more  important  series  against  the  M!ono- 
thelites,  beside  which  must  be  placed  the  letters  and 
the  disputation  with  Pyrrhus .  The  numerous  ascetical 
writings  have  always  received  great  honour  in  Eastern 
monasteries.  The  best  known  is  a  beautiful  dialogue 
between  an  abbot  and  a  young  monk  on  the  spiritual 
Ufe;   there  are  also  various  collections  of  wrUentuB^ 


MAXXBSU8  81 

and  devotional,  for  use  in  the  cloister.    The  to  stop,  so  that  the  cleric  could  partake  of  its  milk. 

'  Mystagima"  is  an  explanation  of  eccledastical  sym-  This  legend  accounts  for  the  fact  that  St.  Mudmus  is 

boliam,  of  importance  for  lituif;ical  history.    Three  represented  in  art  as  pointing  at  a  roe. 

hymna  are  preserved,  and  a  chronological  work  (pub-  ne  is  tiie  author  of  numerous  discourses,  first  edited 

lished  in  Petavius's  "Uranologium",  Paris,  1630,  and  by  Bruni,  and  published  by  order  of  Pius  VI  at  the 

in  P.  G.,  XIX).   Some  writings  exist  only  in  MS.    St.  Propaganda  in  1784  (reprinted  in  P.  L.,  LVIl).   These 

Maxhnus's  literary  labours  had  thus  a  vast  range.   He  discourses,  delivered  to  the  people  by  the  saint, 

was  essentially  a  monk,  a  contemplative,  a  mystic,  consist  of  one  hundred  and  eighteen  nomilies,  one 

thoroughly  at  home  in  the  Platonism  of  Dionysius.  hundred  and  sixteen  sermons,  and  six  treatises  (brac- 

But  he  was  also  a  keen  dialectician,  a  scholastic  theo-  tatus).    Homilies  1-63  are  de  temporej  L  e.  on  the  sea- 

logian,  a  controversialist.    His  influence  in  both  lines  sons  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  and  on  the  feasts  of 

has  been  very  great.     His  main  teaching  may  be  Our  Lord;  64-82,  deaanctia,  i.  e.  on  the  saints  whose 

summed  up  under  two  heads,  the  union  of  God  with  feast  was  commemorated  on  the  day  on  which  they 

humanly  by  the  Incarnation,  and  the  union  of  man  were  delivered;  83-118,  de  diveraiSy  i.  e.  exegetical, 

with  God  by  the  practice  of  perfection  and  contempla-  dogmatical,  or  moral.    Sermons  1-55  are  de  tempore; 

tion.    St.  Maximus  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman  56-93,  de  sancHs;  93-116,  de  diveraia.    Three  of  the 

Martyrology  on  13  August,  and  in  the  Greek  Mencea  treatises  are  on  baptism,  one  against  the  Pagans,  and 

on  21  Januaiy  and  12  and  13  August.   His  Greek  office  one  against  the  Jews.    The  last  two  are  extant  only  in 

is  given  by  Oomb^fis  (P.  G.,  XC,  206).  fragments,  and  their  genuineness  is  doubtful.    The 

A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  begun  by  the  sixth  treatise,  whose  genuineness  is  also  doubtful, 

Dominican  Comb^fis.   Two  volumes  appeared  (Paris,  contains  short  discourses  on  twenty-three  topics  taken 

1675),  but  the  third  is  wanting    In  the  reprint  by  from  the  Four  Gospels.    An  appendix  contains  wiit- 

Migne  (P.  G.,  XC-XCI)  there  is  added  the  "De  Locis  ings  of  uncertain   authorship;   thirty-one  sermons, 

dimcilibuBDionysiietGregorii",  from  Oehler's  edition  three  homilies,  and  two  long  epistles  addressed  to  a 

(Halle,  1857),  and  the  hymns  from  Daniel  "Thesau-  sick  friend.     Many  writings,  however,  which  Bruni 

rus  H3rmnolog."  III.    Anastasius  Bibliothecarius  has  ascribes  to  Maximus  are  of  doubtful  origin.    The  dis- 

preserved  some  letters  and  other  docmnents  in  Latin  courses  are  usually  very  brief,  and  couched  in  forcible, 

in  his  "Collectanea"  (P.  L.,  CXXIX,  and  Mansi,  X).  though  at  times  over  flowery  language.    Among  the 

The   "Scholia"   on   Dionysius  the   Areopa«ite  are  many  facts  of  Utur^  and  history  touched  on  in  the 

printed  with  the  works  of  the  latter  (P.  G.,  IV).    The  discourses  are:  abstinence  during  Lent  (hom.  44),  no 

ancient  "Vita  et  certamen"  (P.  G.,  XC;  Acta  SS.,  13  fasting  or  kneeling  at  pra^rers  during  paschal  time 

Aug.)  is  not  contemporary  and  cannot  be  trusted.  (hom.  61),  fasting  on  the  Vigil  of  Pentecost  (hom.  62), 

For  literature  see  Honorius  I  and  MoNcyrHBuau;  Acta  88,,  the  synod  of  Milan  in  389  at  which  Jovinianus  was  con- 

13  Aus.;  WAOBiniAKif  and  Sbkbbbo  in  ««oi«Fuv^.  (^th  a  demned  (hom.  9),  the  impending  barbarian  invasion 

^£:^)^^^^tiS1^^^^12S^'i!:?V&  (ho^-  8»-^),.the  dertrurtion  of  the  Church  of  Mil«wx 

1873):    Ehrhard  in  Krumbacber,  Oeaeh.  der  byzaru.  Litt,  by  the  barbanans  (hom.  94),  vanous  pagan  supersti- 

(Munich,  IWT);  Wbbbr,  S.  ManmiCmfeuans  precepta  dein-  tions  Still  prevalent  at  his  time  (hom.  16, 100-02),  the 

carnation*  D»HdeifUat%onehommt9(fieT\m,1869):FnKvaa,  Ad  mmrpmanv  nf  Sf    Pot^r  rhnm    /U    70    79    ooi-m    'l^A\ 

Maximi  C(mf.  d*  Deo  hominUqw  deificatione  doctrinam  adnota-  *^P^."^5?^               I'eter  tUom.  64,  7U,  7-^,  SeiTO.  114J. 

Honea  (Schneeben.  1894);  Michaud.  St.  MaximeH  rapoeataaUue  All  tus  discourses  manifest  his  SOhcitude  for  the  eter- 

in  Revue  int€mat,detK£oL  (1902),  257.  On  the  authenticity  of  the  nal  welfare  of  his  flock,  and  in  many  he  fearlessly 

r^t^^S^SffSSr^  tn,^^  S!^S^.S^"&^.  rebukes  ttesupyivaJs  of  paganism  and  defends  the  or- 

LU.  (LeipBts.  1887):   Idem.  Fragmenu  vomicAnischer  Voter,  thoaox  faith  a«amst  the  inroads  of  heresy. 

ibid,  (1899);  Ebrbard  in  ByeanL  Zeitachr,  (1901),  394.  Fbbreri,  S.  ATaeaimo,  veecovo  di  Torino  e  i  ntoi  tempi  (3id  ed., 

John  Chapman.  Turin,  18ft8);   Savio,  OU  antichi  veeeovi  d' Italia  (Turin,  1899), 

283-294;  Fbsblbr-Junomann,  Jnatitutionee  Patrologia^  It  (Inns- 
bruck, 1892),  ii,  256-76;   AsGUoa  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.,  a.  v. 

MaadmiiB  of  Turin,  Saint,  Bishop  and  theological  ^f**^*"!**  iJ^iU^^*^"'™^'™*  P^^^^^gy,  tr.  Shahan  (St. 

writer,  b.  probably  m  Rhsetia,  about  380;  d.  shortly  ^*^'  ^®^^'  ^^^'^'                               iJt.nr..^.  c\^ 

after  465.    Only  two  dates  are  historicaUy  established  JMCHAel  utt. 

in  his  Kfe.     In  461  he  was  at  the  synod  of  Milan  where  Maxwell,  William,  fifth  Earl  of  Nithsdale  (Lord 

the  bishops  of  Northern  Italy  accepted  the  celebrated  Nithsdale  signed  as  Nithsdaill)  and  fourteenth  Lord 

letter  {epia^ola  dogmalica)  of  Leo  I,  setting  forth  the  Maxwell,  b.  m  1676;  d.  at  Rome,  2  March,  1744.    He 

orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  against  the  Nes-  succeeded  his  father  at  the  early  age  of  seven.    His 

toriana   and   Eutychians   (Mansi,  "SS.    Cone.  Ck)ll.  mother,  a  daughter  of  the  House  of  Douglas,  a  clever 

AmpL",  VI,  143).     Among  nineteen  subscribers  Maxi-  enei^etic  woman,  educated  him  in  sentiments  of  devo- 

mus  is  Uie  eighth,  and  since  the  order  was  determined  tion  to  the  Catholic  faith  and  of  loyalty  to  the  House 

by  age,  Maxunus  must  then  have  been  about  seventy  of  Stuart,  for  which  his  familv  was  famous.    When  he 

years  old.    The  second  established  date  is  465,  when  was  about  twenty-three,  Lord  Nithsdale  visited  the 

he  waa  at  the  Synod  of  Rome.     (Mansi,  VII,  959,  965  French  Court  to  do  homage  to  King  James,  and  there 

sq.)     Here  the  subscription  of  Maximus  follows  imme-  met  and  wooed  Lady  Winifred  Herbert,  youngest 

diately  after  the  pope's,  showing  he  was  the  oldest  of  daughter  of  William,  first  Marquis  of  Powis.    The 

the  forty-eight  bishops  present.    The  approximate  marriage  contract  is  dated  2  Marcti,  1699.    The  young 

time  and  place  of  his  birth  may  be  surmised  from  a  couple  resided  chiefly  at  Terregles,  in  Dumfriesshire, 

paosage  in  Sermo  81  (P.  L.,  LVIl,  695),  where  he  desig-  and  here  probably  their  five  children  were  bom.    Un- 

nates  nimself  as  a  witness  of  the  martyrdom  of  three  til  1715  no  special  event  marked  their  lives,  but  in  that 

missionary  priests  in  397  at  Anaunia  m  the  Rhsetian  year  Lord  Nithsdale's  principles  led  him  to  join  the 

Alpe.     History  do«!  not  mention  him  after  465.    He  rising  in  favour  of  Prince  James  Stuart,  and  he  shared 

18  the  first  known  bishop  of  Turin,  then  a  suffragan  see  in  the  disasters  which  attended  the  royal  cause,  being 

of  Milan.    His  successor  was  St.  Victor.    His  name  is  taken  prisoner  at  Preston  and  sent  to  tiie  Tower.    In 

in  the  Roman  martyrology  on  25  June,  and  the  city  of  deep  anxiety  Lady  Nithsdale  hastened  to  London  and 

Turin  honours  him  as  its  patron.    A  life  which,  how-  there  made  every  effort  on  behalf  of  her  husband,  in- 

cver,  is  entirely  unreliable,  was  written  after  the  elev-  eluding  a  personal  appeal  to  Greoree  I,  but  no  sort  of 

enth  century,  and  is  printed  in  "  Acta  SS.",  June,  VII,  hope  was  held  out  to  her.    She,  therefore,  with  true 

3rd  ed.,  44-46.    It  states  that  a  cleric  one  day  fol-  heroism,  planned  and  carried  out  his  escape  on  the  eve 

lowed  him  with  an  evil  intention  to  a  retired  chapel,  of  the  day  fixed  for  his  execution.    Lord  Nithsdale 

where  the  saint  was  wont  to  pray.    The  cleric  sud-  had  prepared  himself  for  death  like  a  good  Catholic 

denly  became  bo  thirsty  that  he  implored  Maximus  for  and  loyal  servant  of  his  king,  as  his  "  Dyins  Speech" 

help.     A  roe  happened  to  pass  which  the  saint  caused  and  farewell  letter  to  his  family  attest.    After  his  es* 


MAXWELL                             82  MATA    ' 

oape  he  fled  in  disguise  to  France.    He  and  Lady  to  be  aimpljr  the  sun-god  eommoii  to  the  whole  Mayu 

Nithsdale  spent  their  last  years  in  great  poverty,  in  stock.    He  is  represented  as  having  led  the  fimt  migm* 

Rome,  in  attendance  on  their  exiled  king.  tion  from  the  Far  East,  beyond  the  ocean,  along  s 

M.  M.  Maxwell  Scott.  pathway  miracuiously  oi>ened  through  the  waters. 

The  second  migration,  which  seems  to  have  been  his- 

Maxwell,  Winifred,  Countess  of  Nithsdale,  d.  at  toric,  was  led  m>m  the  west  by  Kukulcan,  a  miraeu- 
Rome,  May»  1749.  She  was  the  daughter  of  William,  lous  priest  and  teacher,  who  became  the  founder  of  tis 
first  Marquis  of  Powis,  who  followed  James  II  into  ex-  Maya  kingdom  and  civilisation.  Fairly  ^ood  author- 
ile.  She  is  famous  in  history  for  the  heroic  deliver-  ity,  based  upon  study  of  the  Maya  chromdes  and  cat 
ance  of  her  husband  from  the  Tower  on  23  Feb.,  1716.  endar,  places  tins  beginning  near  the  close  of  the  see- 
Her  married  life  was  passed  chiefly  at  the  family  seat  ond  century  of  the  Christian  Era.  Under  Kukulcin 
of  Terregles,  and  here  she  received  the  fatal  news  of  the  people  were  divided  into  four  tribes,  ruled  by  %a 
her  husbiEind's  defeat  at  Preston.  After  concealing  many  kmgly  families:  the  Cooom,  Tutul-xiu^  ItsA,  and 
the  family  papers  in  a  spot  still  pointed  out,  she  hast-  Chel^.  To  the  first  family  belonged  Kukulcan  lum- 
ened  to  London  to  intercede  for  her  husband,  having  self,  who  established  his  residence  at  Maya|)an,  which 
little  hope  however,  for,  to  use  her  own  words:  "A  thus  became  the  capital  of  the  whole  nation.  The 
Catholic  upon  the  borders  and  one  who  had  a  great  fol-  Tutul-xiu  held  vassal  rule  at  Uxmal,  the  Itsil  at  Chi- 
lowing  and  whose  family  had  ever  upon  all  occasions  chen-Its^  and  the  Chel6  at  Isamal.  To  the  CheliS  wu 
stuck  to  the  royal  family,  could  not  look  for  mercy '\  appointed  the  hereditar]^  high  priesthood,  and  their 
And  so  it  proved;  even  her  personal  appeal  to  George  I  city  became  the  sacred  city  of  tne  Maya.  £ach  pro- 
was  disregarded,  and  Lord  Nithsdale  was  to  owe  his  vindal  king  was  oblieed  to  spend  a  put  of  each  year 
safety  to  her  alone.  With  great  coiu'age  and  ingenu-  with  the  monarch  at  Mayapan.  This  condition  coi>- 
ity  she  contrived  his  escane  from  the  Tower  in  female  tinned  down  to  about  the  eleventh  century,  when,  as 
dress — on  the  eve  of  the  aay  appointed  for  his  execu-  the  result  of  a  successful  revolt  of  the  provincial  kingL 
tion,  according  to  Lady  Cowper  s  "  Diarv,''  1st  ed.,  p.  Mayapan  was  destroyed,  and  the  supreme  rule  paaBea 
85,  a  reprieve  was  signed  for  Lord  Nithsdale  on  the  to  the  Tutul-xiu  at  Uxmal.  Later  on  Mayapan  was 
very  nignt  of  his  escape — and  after  concealing  him  in  rebuilt  and  was  again  the  capital  of  the  nation  until 
London  and  arranging  for  his  journey  to  France,  this  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when,  in 
heroic  lady  returned  again  to  Scotland  to  secure  the  consequence  of  a  general  revolt  against  the  reigmng 
family  papers  which  she  knew  would  be  of  vital  im-  dynasty^  it  was  finally  destroyed,  and  the  monarchy 
portance  to  her  son.  In  fact  her  zeal  made  Lady  was  spht  up  into  a  number  of  independent  petty 
Nithsdale's  position  a  hazardous  one,  and  King  Qeorge  states,  of  which  eighteen  existed  on  the  peninsula  at 
deckured  she  had  done  him  "more  mischief  than  any  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  In  oonsequenoe  of  this 
woman  in  Christendom".  As  soon  as  she  was  able  civil  war  a  part  of  the  Itz&  emigrated  south  to  Lake 
she  joined  Lord  Nithsdale  abroad  and  thev  spent  their  Pet&i,  in  Guatemala^  where  they  established  a  king- 
long  exile  in  Rome,  where  she  survived  her  husband  dom  with  their  capital  and  sacred  city  on  Florea 
for  about  five  years.    The  autograph  letter  in  which  Island,  in  the  lake. 

Lady  Nithsdale  gives  the  account  ot  her  husband's  es-  On  ms  second  voyage  Columbus  heard  of  Yucatan 

cape,  and  the  brown  cloak  worn  by  him  on  the  occa-  as  a  distant  oountiy  of  clothed  men.    On  his  fifth  voy- 

sion,  are  now  in  possession  of  the  Duchess  of  Norfolk,  age  (1503-04^  he  encountered,  south-west  of  Cuba,  a 

who  represents  tne  Nithsdales  in  the  female  line.  canoe-load  of  Indians  with  cotton  clothing  for  barter, 

Frabbr,  BookofCaeHaim(^{Ed^wiAi,  1873);  Paul,  The  who  said  that  they  came  from  the  country  of  Maya. 

lS!i,S73S»SS''iJ^  r&^"S{S.^JS:  T^  1506  PiMon  sighted  the  coart^  and  in  1511  t^ngr 

1897).                                  M.  M.  Maxwell  Scott.  "^^^  under  Valdivia  were  wrecked  on  the  shores  of  the 

sacred  island  of  Cosumel,  several  being  captured  and 

Maya  Indiaiui,  the  most  important  of  the  cul-  sacrificed  to  the  idols.  In  1517  an  expedition  und^ 
tured  native  peoples  of  North  America,  both  in  the  Francisco  de  Cordova  landed  on  the  north  coast,  di»> 
degree  of  their  civilization  and  in  population  and  re-  covering  well-built  cities^  but,  after  several  bloody  en- 
sources,  formerly  occupying  a  temtory  of  about  60,-  g&gements  with  the  natives,  was  compelled  to  retire. 
000  square  miles,  includmg  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  Father  Alonso  Gonsales,  who  accompanied  this  exjpe- 
of  Yucatan,  Southern  Mexico,  together  with  the  adja-  dition,  found  opportunity  at  one  landing  to  explore  a 
cent  portion  of  Northern  Guatemala,  and  still  consti-  temple,  and  brmg  off  some  of  the  sacred  images  and 
tuting  the  principal  population  of  the  same  region  gold  ornaments.  In  1518  a  strong  expediticui  under 
outside  of  tne  larger  cities.  Their  language,  which  is  Juan  de  Grijalva,  from  Cuba,  landed  near  Cosumel 
actually  supplanting  Spanish  to  a  great  extent,  is  still  and  took  formal  possession  for  Spain.  For  Father 
spoken  by  about  300,000  persons,  dL  whom  two-thirds  Juan  Diaz^  who  on  this  occasion  celebrated  Mass  upon 
are  pure  Maya,  the  remainaer  being  whites  and  of  mixed  the  summit  of  one  of  the  heathen  temples,  the  honour 
blood.  The  Mayan  linguistic  stock  includes  some  is  also  claimed  of  having  afterwards  been  the  first  to 
twenty  tribes,  speaking  closely  related  dialects,  and  celebrate  Mass  in  the  City  of  Mexico.  Near  Cosumel, 
(excepting  the  Huastec  of  northern  Vera  Cruz  and  also,  was  rescued  the  young  monk  Aguilar,  one  of  the 
south-east  San  Luis  Potosf ,  Mexico)  occupying  contigu-  two  survivora  of  Valdivia's  party,  who,  though  naked 
ous  territory  in  Tabasco,  Chiapas,  and  the  Yucatan  to  the  breech-cloth,  still  oarriea  his  Breviaiy  in  a 
I>eninsula,  a  large  part  of  Guatemala,  and  smaller  poi^  pouch.  Proceeding  northwards,  Grijaba  made  the  en- 
tions  of  Honduras  and  Salvador.  The  ancient  build-  tire  circuit  of  the  peninsula  before  returning,  having 
ers  of  the  ruined  cities  of  Palenque  and  Copdn  were  of  had  another  desperate  engagement  with  the  Ma^ 
the  same  stock.  The  most  im]>ortant  tnbes  or  na-  near  Campeche.  After  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  m 
tions.  after  the  Maya  proper,  were  the  Quiche  and  1521,  Francisco  de  Montejo,  under  commission  as 
Cakciuquel  of  Guatemala.  All  the  tribes  of  this  stock  Governor  of  Yucatan,  landed  (1527)  to  effect  the  con- 
were  of  nigh  culture,  the  Mayan  civilization  being  the  (^uest  of  the  country,  but  met  with  such  deiqierate  re- 
most  advanced,  and  probably  the  most  ancient,  in  sistance  that  after  eight  yeara  of  incessant  fighting 
aboriginal  North  America.  They  still  number  alto-  every  Spaniard  had  been  driven  out.  In  1540,  after 
gether  about  two  million  souls.  two  more  years  of  the  same  desperate  warfare,  his  son 

I.  ELlstort. — ^The  Maya  proper  seem  to  have  en-  Francisco  established  the  first  Spanish  settlement  at 

tered  Yucatan  from  the  west.    As  usual  with  ancient  Campe<^.    In  the  next  year,  in  a  bloodv  batUe  at 

nations,  it  is  difficult  in  the  beginning  to  separate  TUioo,  he  completely  broke  the  power  of  Maya  resist* 

m^th  from  history,  their  earliest  mentioned  leader  and  ance,  and  a  few  months  later  (Jan.,  1542)  founded  oo 

ieified  hero,  Itzaznnd,  being  considered  by  Brinton  ih&  site  of  the  ruined  city  the  new  capital,  M^rida.   In 


1U7A  i 

1546,  however,  there  ma  a  general  revolt,  and  it  mu 
not  until  a  year  later  that  the  ccmquest  waa  assured. 

In  the  original  oommiasion  to  Moatejo  it  had  been 
expressly  stipulated  that  missicmaries  should  accom- 
pany all  his  CQCpeditirau.  This,  however,  he  had  neg- 
lected to  attend  to  and  in  1531  (or  1531),  by  special 
order,  Father  Jacobo  de  Testera  and  four  otnera  were 
sent  to  join  tl^  Spanish  camp  near  Campecbe.  They 
met  a  kindly  welcome  from  the  Indians,  who  came 
with  their  children  to  be  instructed,  and  thus  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  might  have  been  effected  through 
spiritual  agencies  but  for  the  outrages  committed  by  a 
band  at  Sp&nish  outlaws,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
priests  were  forced  to  withdraw.  In  1537  five  more 
m;««iimTin«  arrived  and  met  the  same  wilhng  recep- 
tion, remaining  about  two  years  in  spite  of  the  war 
still  in  progreaa.  About  1545  a  large  number  of  ous- 
:r  from  Spain.    Several  of  these 


— apparently 
tion  of  Fatbe 
lalpando,  were  assigned  to 
Yucatan.  lAndiug  at  Cam- 
peche,  the  governor  ex- 
plained their  purpose  to  the 
chiefs,  the  convent  of  St. 
FranciB  was  dedicated  on  its 
present  sit^,  and  translations 
were  begun  into  the  native 
language.  The  first  baptised 
convert  was  the  chief  of  Cam- 
peehe,  who  learned  Spanish 
and  thereafter  acted  as  inter- 
preter for  the  priests. 

Here,  Ofl  elsewhere,  the 
missionariea  were  the  cham- 
pions of  the  rights  of  the  In- 
diana. In  consequence  of 
their  repeated  protests  a  royal 
edict  WHS  iasueil,  in  1549,  pro- 
hibiting Indian  slavery  in  the 
province,  while  promising 
eompensation  to  the  slave- 
ownera.  As  in  other  cases, 
local  i^poeition  defeated  the 
purpose  of  this  law;  but  the 
agitation  went  on,  and  in  15SI 
aoother  royal  edict  liberated 
150,000  made  Indian  slaves, 
with  their  families,  through- 
out Mexico.  In  1557  and  155S 

the  Crown  intervened  to  »-  BcmnoiiD  FionB 

■train  the  tyranny  of  the  na-  Hay>  Ooae  cvvin 

live  chiefs.     Within  a   very 

abort  time  Father  VilUlpando  had  at  his  mission  station 
atU^ridii  over  a  thousand  converts,  including  several 
chiefs.  He  himself,  with  Father  Malchior  de  Bena- 
veuie,  then  set  out.  barefoot,  for  the  city  of  Manf,  in 
the  mountains  fartner  south,  where  their  success  was 
•o  great  that  two  thousand  converts  were  soon  en- 
p^  in  building  them  a  church  and  dwelling.  All 
went  well  until  they  began  to  plead  with  the  chiefs  to 
release  their  vassals  from  certain  hard  conditions, 
when  the  chiefs  resolved  to  burn  them  at  the  altar. 
On  the  appointed  night  the  chiefs  and  their  retainers 
■ppruached  the  church  with  this  design,  but  were 
■wed  from  their  purpose  on  finding  the  two  priests, 
who  had  been  warned  by  an  Indian  boy,  calmly  pray- 
ing befom  the  crucifix.  After  remaining  all  nignt  m 
Bthe  fatheri  were  fortunately  rescued  by  a 
detachment  whidi,  almost  miraculausty, 
to  pass  that  way.  Twenty-seven  of  the  con- 
KiLiatora  wen  afterwarda  seized  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  were  all  saved  by  the  interposition  of  Vil- 
Upando.  In  154S~49  otW  missionariea  arrived 
from  Spain,  Villaipando  was  made  custodian  of  the 

Eivinee,  and  a  convent  was  erected  near  the  site  of 
efaipd  at  UuiL    The  Yucatan  field  having  been 


assigned  to  the  Franciscans,  all  the  missionary  woik 
among  the  Maya  was  done  bv  priests  of  that  order. 

In  1561  Yucatan  was  made  a  diocese  with  its  aee  at 
M£rida.  In  the  next  year  the  famous  Dief^  de  Landa, 
Franciscan  provincial,  and  afterwards  bishop  (1573- 
79),  becomtnK  aware  that  the  natives  throughout  the 
peninsula  atill  secretly  cherished  their  ancient  rites, 
instituted  an  investigation,  which  he  conducted  with 
such  omeltiea  of  torture  and  death  that  the  proceed- 
ings were  stopped  by  order  of  Bishop  Toral,  Francis- 
can provincial  of  Mexico,  immedialely  upon  his  arri- 
val, during  the  same  summer,  to  occupy  the  See  of 
H^rida.  Before  this  could  be  done,  however,  there 
hod  been  destroyed,  as  is  asserted,  two  million  sacred 
images  and  hundreds  of  hieroglyphic  manuscripts-7 
practically  the  whole  of  the  voluminous  native  Maya 
literature.  As  late  as  1586  a  royal  edict  was  issued  for 
the  suppression  of  idolatiy.  In  1575-77,  a  terrible 
visitation  of  a  mysterious  disease,  called  mailaUakuaU, 


which  attacked  only  the  In- 
I  dians,  swept  over  Southern 
I  Mexico andYucatan, destroy- 
ing, as  was  estimated,  over 
two  minion  lives.  This  was 
its  fourth  appearance  since 
the  conciuest.  At  its  close  it 
was  eatimated  that  the  whole 
Indian  population  of  Mexico 
hod  been  reduced  to  about 
1,700,000  souls.  In  1583  and 
1697  there  were  local  revolte 
tmder  chiefs  of  the  ancient 
Cocom  royal  family.  By  this 
latter  date  it  was  estimated 
that  the  native  population  of 
Mexico  had  dccUned  by  three- 
fourths  since  the  discovery, 
through  massacre,  famine, 
disease,  and  oppression.  Up 
to  1593  over  150  Franciscan 
monks  had  been  engaged  in 
missionary  work  in  Yucatan, 
The  Mava  history  of  the 
•eventeentn  century  is  chiefly 
one  of  revolts,  vis.,  lfllO-33, 
163fr^4,  1653,  1669,  1670, 
and  about  1675.  Of  all  these, 
that  of  1636-44  waa  the  most 
extensive  and  serious,  result- 
ing in  a  temporary  revival  , 
a  AHD  HiEBoai.TPaa  O^  ^  old  heathen  ritea.    In 

t  in  BritiBb  MuBBum  1697  the  island  capital  of  the 

Itid,  in  Lake  Fette,  Guate- 
mala, was  stormed  by  Governor  Martin  de  Ursua, 
and  with  it  fell  the  last  stronghold  of  the  indepen- 
dent Maya,  Here,  also,  the  manuscripts  discov- 
ered were  destroyed.  In  1728  Bishop  Juan  Gomel 
Parada  died,  beloved  by  the  Indians  for  the  laws 
which  he  had  procured  mitigating  the  harshness  of 
their  servitude.  The  reimposition  of  the  former  hard 
oonditions  brought  about  another  revolt  in  1761,  led 
by  the  chief  Jacinto  Canek,  and  ending,  as  usual,  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Indians,  the  destruction  of  their  chief 
stronghold,  and  the  death  of  their  leader  under  horri- 
ble torture. 

In  1847,  taking  advantage  of  the  Govertmient's  dif- 
ficulties with  the  United  Stat«B,  and  urged  on  by  their 
"unappeasable  hatred  toward  their  rulers  from  tbe 
earliest  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest  ".the  Maya  again 
broke  out  in  general  rebeUion,  with  tne  declared  pur- 
poae  of  driving  all  the  whites,  half-breeds  and  negroes 
from  the  peninsida,  in  which  they  were  so  far  auccesa- 
ful  that  all  the  fugitives  who  escaped  the  wholesale 
massacres  fled  to  the  coast,  whence  moat  of  them  were 
taken  oS  by  ships  from  Cuba.  Arma  and  ammunition 
for  the  rising  were  freely  supplied  to  the  Indians  by 
the  British  traders  of  BeliM.    In  1851  th«  rebel  Hiqn 


IIAYA 


84 


IIAYA 


Mtablished  their  headquarters  at  Chan-Santa-Cruz  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  peninsula.  In  1853  it  seemed 
as  if  a  temporary  understanding  had  been  reached,  but 
next  year  hostilities  began  again.  Two  expeditions 
against  the  Maya  stronghold  were  repulsed,  Valladolid 
was  besieged  by  the  Indians,  Yecax  taken,  and  more 
than  two  thousand  whites  massacred.  In  1860  the 
Mexican  Colonel  Ao6reto,  with  3,000  men,  occupied 
Chan-Santa-Cruz,  but  was  finally  compelled  to  retire 
with  the  loss  of  1,500  men  killed,  and  to  abandon  his 
wounded — ^who  were  all  butchered — as  weU  as  his 
artillery  and  supplies  and  all  but  a  few  hundred  stand 
of  small  arms.  The  Indians  burned  and  ravaged  in 
every  direction,  nineteen  flourishing  towns  being  en- 
tirely wiped  out,  and  the  population  in  three  districts 
being  reduced  from  97,000  to  35,000.  The  war  of  ex- 
termination continued,  with  savage  atrocities,  through 
1864,  wh«n  it  gradually  wore  itself  out,  leaving  the 
Indians  still  unsubdued  and  well  supplied  with  arms 
and  munitions  of  war  from  Belize.  In  1868  it  broke 
out  again  in  resistance  to  the  Juarez  government.  In 
1871  a  Mexican  force  again  occupied  Chan-Santa-Cruz, 
but  retired  without  producing  any  permanent  result. 
In  1901,  after  long  preparation,  a  strong  Mexican 
force  invaded  the  territory  of  the  independent  Maya 
both  by  land  and  sea,  stormed  Chan-Santa-Cruz  and, 
after  determined  resistance,  drove  the  defenders  into 
the  swamps.  The  end  is  not  yet,  however,  for.  even  in 
this  year  of  1910,  Mexican  troops  are  in  the  field  to  put 
down  a  serious  rising  in  the  northern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula. 

II.  Institutions,  Arts,  and  Literature. — Under 
the  ancient  system,  the  Maya  Govenmient  was  an 
hereditary  absolute  monarchy,  with  a  close  union  of 
the  spiritual  and  temporal  elements,  the  hereditary 
high  priest,  who  was  also  king  of  the  sacred  city  of 
Izamal,  being  consulted  by  the  monarch  on  all  impor- 
tant matters,  besides  having  the  care  of  ritual  and 
ceremonials.  On  public  occasions  the  king  appeared 
dressed  in  flowing  white  robes,  decorated  witn  gold 
and  precious  stones,  wearing  on  his  head  a  golden 
circlet  decorated  with  the  beautiful  guetzal  plumes 
reserved  for  royalty,  and  borne  upon  a  canopied  palan- 
quin. The  provincial  governors  were  nooles  of  the 
four  royal  families,  and  were  supreme  within  their  own 
governments.  The  rulers  of  towns  and  villages  formed 
a  lower  order  of  nobility,  not  of  royal  blood.  The  king 
usually  acted  on  the  advice  of  a  council  of  lords  and 
priests.  The  lords  alone  were  military  commanders, 
and  each  lord  and  inferior  official  had  for  his  support 
the  produce  of  a  certain  portion  of  land  which  was 
cultivated  in  common  by  tne  people.  They  received 
no  salary,  and  each  was  responsible  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  poor  and  helpless  of  his  district.  The  lower 
priesthood  was  not  hereditary,  but  was  appointed 
through  the  high  priest.  There  was  also  a  female 
priesthood,  or  vestal  order^  whose  head  was  a  princess 
of  royal  blood.  The  plebeians  were  farmers,  artisans, 
or  merchants;  they  paid  taxes  and  military  service, 
and  each  had  his  interest  in  the  common  land  as  well 
as  his  individual  portion^  which  descended  in  the  fam- 
ily and  could  not  be  ahenated.  Slaves  also  existed, 
the  slaves  being  chiefly  prisoners  of  war  and  their  chil- 
dren, the  latter  of  whom  could  become  freemen  by 
puttmg  a  new  piece  of  unoccupied  ground  under  culti- 
vation. Society  was  orgaziized  upon  the  clan  system, 
with,  descent  in  the  male  line,  the  chiefs  being  rather 
custodians  for  the  tribe  than  owners,  and  having  no 
power  to  alienate  the  tribal  lands.  Game,  fish,  and  the 
salt  marshes  were  free  to  all,  with  a  certain  portion  to 
the  lords.  Taxes  were  paid  in  kind  through  authorized 
collectors.  On  the  death  of  the  owner,  the  property 
was  divided  equally  among  his  nearest  male  neirs. 

The  more  important  cases  were  tried  by  a  royal 
council  presided  over  by  the  king,  and  lesser  cases  by 
the  provincial  rulers  or  local  judges,  according  to  their 
importance,  usually  with  the  assistance  of  a  coimcil  and 


with  an  advocate  for  the  defence.  Crimes  were  pun* 
ished  with  death — ^frequently  by  throwing  over  a 
precipice — enslavement,  fines,  or,  rarely,  by  unpiison- 
ment.  The  code  was  merciful,  and  even  murder  oouM 
sometimes  be  com]>ounded  by  a  fine.  Children  were 
subject  to  parents  until  of  an  age  to  marry,  which  for 
boys  was  about  twenty.  The  children  of  the  conunao 
people  were  trained  only  in  the  occupation  of  their 
parents,  but  those  of  the  nobility  were  highly  edu- 
cated, under  the  care  of  the  priests,  in  writing,  music, 
histoiy,  war,  and  religion.  The  daughters  m  noblei 
were  strictly  secluded,  and  the  older  boys  in  each  vil- 
lage lived  and  slept  apart  in  a  public  bmlding.  Birth- 
days and  other  anmversaries  were  the  occasions  of 
family  feasts. 

Marriage  between  persons  of  the  same  gens  was  for- 
bidden, and  those  who  violated  this  law  were  regarded 
as  outcasts.  Marriage  within  certain  other  degrees  of 
relationship — as  with  the  sister  of  a  deceased  wife,  or 
with  a  mother's  sister — ^was  also  prohibited.  Polyg- 
amy was  unknown,  but  concubinage  was  permitted, 
and  divorce  was  easy.  Marriages  were  pertormed  by 
the  priests,  with  much  ceremonial  rejoicing,  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  solemn  confession  and  a  baptismal  nte, 
known  as  the  **  rebirth  ",  without  which  there  could  be 
no  marriage.  No  one  could  marry  out  of  his  own  rank 
or  without  the  consent  of  the  chief  of  the  district. 
Religious  ritual  was  elaborate  and  imposing,  with  fre- 
quent festival  occasions  in  honour  of  the  gods  of  the 
winds,  the  rain,  the  cardinal  points,  the  harvest,  of 
birth,  death,  and  war,  with  firoecial  honours  to  the 
deified  national  heroes  Itzamna  and  Kukulcan.  The 
whole  country  was  dotted  with  temples,  usually  great 
stone-built  pyramids,  while  certam  places — as  the 
sacred  city  of  izamal  and  the  island  of  Cozumel — ^were 
places  of  pilgrimage.  There  was  a  special  "  feast  of  all 
the  gods^.  The  prevailing  mildness  of  the  Maya  cult 
was  in  strong  contrast  to  the  bloody  ritual  of  the 
Aztec.  Human  sacrifice  was  forbidden  by  Kukulcan, 
and  crept  in  only  in  later  years.  It  was  never  a  fre- 
quent or  prominent  feature,  excepting  at  Chichen- 
Itz^,  where  it  at  least  became  customary,  on  occasion 
of  some  great  national  crisis,  to  sacrifice  himdreds  of 
voluntary  victims  of  their  own  race,  frequently  virgins, 
by  drowning  them  in  one  of  the  subterranean  rock 
wells  or  cenotes,  after  which  the  bodies  were  drawn  out 
and  buried. 

The  Maya  farmer  cultivated  com,  beans,  cacao, 
chile,  maguey,  bananas,  and  cotton^  besides  giving 
attention  to  bees,  from  which  he  obtamed  both  honey 
and  wax.  Various  fermented  drinks  were  prepared 
from  com,  maguey,  and  honey.  They  were  much 
given  to  drunkeimesSj  which  was  so  common  ms  hardly 
to  be  considered  disgraceful.  Chocolate  was  the 
favourite  drink  of  the  upper  classes.  Cacao  beans,  as 
well  as  pieces  of  copper,  were  a  common  medium  <^ 
exchange.  Very  little  meat  was  eaten,  except  at  cere- 
monial feasts,  although  the  Maya  were  expert  hunters 
and  fishers.  A  small  ''barkless"  dog  was  also  eaten. 
The  ordinary  garment  of  men  was  a  cotton  breechcloth 
wrapped  around  the  middle,  with  sometimes  a  sleeve- 
less snirt,  either  white  or  dyed  in  colors.  The  women 
wore  a  skirt  belted  at  the  waist,  and  plaited  their  hair 
In  long  tresses.  Sandals  were  worn  by  both  sexes. 
Tattooing  and  head-flattening  were  occasionallyprac- 
tised,  and  the  face  and  body  were  always  pamted. 
The  Maya,  then  as  now,  were  noted  for  personal  neat- 
ness and  frequent  use  of  both  cold  and  hot  baths. 
They  were  expert  and  determined  warriors,  using  the 
bow  and  arrow,  the  dart  with  throwing-stick,  the 
wooden  sword  edged  with  flints,  the  lance,  sling,  cop- 
per axe,  shield  of  reeds,  and  protective  armour  of  heavy 
(quilted  cotton.  They  understood  military  tactics  and 
signalling  with  drum  and  whistle,  and  knew  how  to 
bmld  barricades  and  dig  trenches.  Noble  prisonen 
were  usually  sacrificed  to  the  gods,  while  those  of 
oidinarv  rank  became  slaves.    Their  object  in  war 


! 
-. J 


I    BIBROOLTPH 


)    AtVTAB-PIECB,    WITB 

DOORWAY 


THE  Nnw  TC^K 
PUBLIC  ir.nARY 


IIAYA                                  85  IIAYA 

B  rather  to  make  prisoners  xhan  to  kill.  As  the  de  Bourbour^  in  volume  two  of  the  "Mission  Scienti- 
peninsiila  had  no  mines,  the  Maya  were  without  iron  fique  au  Mexiaue"  (Paris,  1870);  "Arte  de  el  Idioma 
or  any  metal  excepting  a  few  copper  utensils  and  gold  Maya  "  by  Fatner  Pedro  de  Santa  Rosa  Maria  Beltran, 
ornaments  imported  from  other  countries.  Their  tools  a  native  of  Yucatan  and  instructor  in  the  Maya  Ian- 
were  almost  entirely  of  flint  or  other  stone,  even  for  guage  in  the  fYanciscan  convent  of  M^rida  (Mexico, 
the  most  intricate  monumental  carving.  For  house-  1746,  and  M^rida,  1859);  "Gram^tica'Yucateca"  by 
hold  purposes  they  used  clay  pottery,  dishes  of  shell,  Father  Joaquin  Ruz,  of  the  Franciscan  convent  of 
or  gourds.  Their  potteiy  was  of  notable  excellence,  M^rida,  also  a  native  of  Yucatan  and  "  the  most  fluent 
as  were  also  their  weaving,  d3reing,  and  feather  woric.  of  the  writers  in  the  Maya  language  that  Yucatan  has 
Along  the  coast  they  had  wooden  dugout  canoes  capa-  produced  "  (M^rida,  1844) ,  and  republished  in  an  Eng- 
ble  of  holding  fifty  persons.                              ^  lish  translation  by  the  Baptist  missionary,  Rev.  John 

They  had  a  voluminous  literature,  covering  the  Kingdom  (Belize,  1847).    Each  of  these  writers  was 

whole  range  of  native  interests,  either  written,  in  their  also  the  author  of  other  works  in  the  language. 

own  peculiar  "calculiform''  hieroglyphic  characters,  Of  published  dictionaries  may  be  mentioned:  first 

in  books  of  maguey  paper  or  parchment  which  were  and  earliest,  a  "Diccionario",  credited  to  Father  Vi- 

boiind  in  wood,  or  carved  upon  the  walls  of  their  pub-  llalpando  (Mexico,  1571) ;  then  "  Diccionario  de  la  Len- 

lic  buildings.    Twenty-seven  parchment  books  were  gua  Maya",  by  Juan  Perez  (M^rida,  1866-77);  and 

publicly  destroyed  by  Bishop  Landa  at  Manf  in  1562,  "  Dictionnaire.  Granunaire  et  Chre«tomathie  de  la 

othera  elsewhere  in  tne  peninsula,  others  again  at  the  langue  Maya  ,  bv  the  Abb6  Brasseiu:  de.Bourboui^ 

storming  of  the  Itzd  capital  in  1697,  and  almost  all  (Paris,  1872).    The  most  valuable  dictionaries  of  the 

that  have  come  down  to  us  are  four  codices,  as  they  are  language  are  still  in  manuscript.    Chief  is  the  one 

called,  viz.,  the  "Codex  Troano",  published  at  Paris  known  as  the  "Diccionario  del  Convento  de  Motvd", 

in  1869;  another  codex,  apparently  connected  with  the  from  the  name  of  the  Franciscan  convent  in  Yucatan 

first,  published  at  Paris  m  1882;  the  ''Codex  Peresi-  in  which  it  was  found;  it  is  now  in  the  Carter  Brown 

anus',  published  at  Paris  in  1869-71;  and  the"  Dresden  librazy  at  Providence.    It  is  beautifully  written  and 

Codex' ,  originally  mistakenly  published  as  an  Aztec  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  an  original  written  by  a 

book  in  Kingsborough's  great  work  on  the  "  Antiqui-  Franciscan  priest,  who  was  evidently  a  master  of  the 

ties  of  Mexico"  (London,^  1830-48^.     Besides  these  language,  about  1590.     "In  extent  the  dictionary  is 

pre-Spanishwritings,  of  which  there  IS  yet  no  ade(]iuate  not  surpassed  bv  that  of  any  aboriginal  language  of 

mterpretation,  we  ha  ve  a  number  of  later  works  written  America ' '  (Bartlett) .    Other  manuscript  dictionaries 

in  the  native  language  by  Christianized  Maya  shortly,  are  those  of  the  Convent  of  M^rida  (aoout  1640);  of 

after  the   conquest.     Several  of  these  have  hb^ti  £1^  Convent  of  TicuF;  (about  1690);  and  one  by  the 

brought  together  by  Brinton  in  his  "  Maya  Chrdbi-  /vRe^  Alexa^dei^  Henderson,  a  Methodist  missionary  of 
cles".  The  intricate  calendar  system  of  the  Mi^^-^-BeJize /1 839-^6).,. noiy  the  property  of  the  Bureau  of 
which  exceeded  in  elaboration  that  of  the  Azjec^  •'*Amerieafn   -EUmolo^.     (See   also   Brinton,   "Maya 

Zapotec,  or  any  other  of  the  cultured  native  races,  bas  Chronicles",  and  M^a  titles  in  Pilling.  "Bibliog- 

been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.   It  was  based^on  raphy,  Proofsheets"  fWashington,  1885).) 
a  series  of  kaiuns,  or  cycles,  consisting  of  20  (or  24) ,  ^2,  - .  i-: , .  Pfa^incadly:'  tiie  Maya  are  dark,  short,  muscular,  and 
and  260  years,  and  bv  its  means  they  carried  their ..  .bfpad^^ee^^ojn^^elfe^ 

history  down  for  possibly  thirteen  centuries,  the  com- ' .  ^^rward,  reUabie,'  oT  it  cheerful  disposition,  and  neat 
pletion  of  each  lesser  katun  being  noted  by  the  inser-/^  and  orderly  hafiits.  j  Their  wars  with  Mexico  have 
tion  of  a  memorial  stone  in  the  wall  of  the  great  templS'^'^^en  wagea,'^'EdW&V^',  with  the  utmost  savagery,  the 

at  Mayapan.  provocation  bein^  as  great  on  the  other  side.    Their 

The  art  in  which  above  all  the  Maya  excelled,  and  daily  life  differs  little  m)m  that  of  the  ordinary  Mexi- 
through  which  they  are  best  known,  is  architecture,  can  peasant,  their  ordinary  dwellings  being  thatched 
The  splendid  ruins  of  temples,  p3rramids,  and  great  huts,  their  dress  the  common  white  Shirt  and  trousers, 
cities — some  of  which  were  mtact  and  occupied  at  the  with  sandals  and  straw  hat,  for  men,  and  for  women 
time  of  the  conquest — scattered  by  scores  and  him-  white  embroidered  skirt  and  sleeveless  gown.  They 
dreds  throughout  the  forests  of  Yucatan,  have  been  cultivate  the  ordinary  products  of  the  region,  including 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  travellers  for  over  half  a  sugar  and  hennequm  hemp,  while  the  independent 
century,  since  they  were  first  brought  prominently  to  bands  give  considerable  attention  to  himting.  While 
notice  by  Stephens.  Says  Brinton:  "The  material  they  are  all  now  Catholics,  with  resident  priests  in  all 
was  usually  a  nard  limestone,  which  was  polished  and  the  towns,  that  fact  in  no  way  softens  their  animosity 
carved,  and  imbedded  in  a  firm  mortar.  Such  was  towards  the  concjuering  race.  Thev  still  keep  up 
also  the  character  of  the  edifices  of  the  Quiches  and  many  of  their  ancient  rites,  particularly  those  relating 
Cakchiquels  of  Guatemala.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  to  the  planting  and  harvesting  of  the  crops.  Many  of 
none  of  these  masons  knew  the  plumb-line  or  the  these  survivals  are  described  by  Brinton  in  a  chapter 
SQuare,  the  accuracy  of  the  adjustments  is  remarkable,  of  his  "  Essays  of  an  Americanist ".  The  best  recent 
Tneir  efforts  at  sculpture  were  equally  bold.  They  accoimt  (1894)  of  the  independent  Maya  is  that  of  the 
did  not  hesitate  to  attempt  statues  in  the  roimd  of  German  traveller  Sapper,  who  praises  in  the  highest 
life  size  and  larger,  and  the  facades  of  the  edifices  were  terms  their  honesty,  punctuality,  hospitality,  and 
covered  with  extensive  and  intricate  designs  cut  in  peaceful  family  life.  A  translation  of  it  is  given  in  the 
hi^h  relief  upon  the  stones.  All  this  was  accom-  Bowditch  collection.  At  that  time  the  Mexican  gov- 
plished  without  the  use  of  metal  tools,  as  they  did  not  emment  officially  recognized  three  independent  Amya 
nave  even  the  bronze  chisels  familiar  to  the  Aztecs. "  states,  or  tribes,  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Yucatan, 
The  interior  walls  were  also  frequently  covered  with  the  most  important  being  the  hostiles  of  the  Chan- 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  carved  m  the  stone  or  wood,  Santa-Cruz  district,  estimated  at  not  more  than  10,000 
or  painted  upon  the  plaster.  Among  the  most  noted  souls  as  against  about  40,000  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
of  tiie  Mava  ruins  are  those  of  Palenque  (in  Chiapas),  rebellion  of  1847.  The  other  two  bands  together 
Uxmal,  Chichen-Itz^,  and  Mayapan.  numbered  perhaps  as  many,  having  decrea^d  in 

The  Maya  language  has  received  much  attention  about  the  same  ratio, 

from  missionaries  and  scientists  from  an  early  period.  «,^'l$9'*\v^!^-  ^  yveatan  ^,  v^ob..  M6rida,  1878);  Bancboit 

pf«amma«theearU«ti8the;'Artey  Vocabufeode  ^  S'^e^S^Tj^I'l'llS');  YpX^S.'  ""^A 

la  lengua  de  Yucatan"  of  Luis  de  Vlllalpando,  pub-  America  (3  vola.,  San   Francisco.  1886-87):    Idem.  Hitt.  </ 

liahed  about  1655.     Others  of  note  are  ^'Arte  de  la  M^txim  (6  wb..  Smi  Francbco.  I886788):  Bowditch  (ed.) 

Ungu*  Maya  "  by  Fath^  Gabriel  San  B««naventura  ^^HT  ^t^^^"^^  ^rSSflcSJSS  %'^ 

(Mesoo,  1684),  and  republished  by  the  Abbe  Brasseur  dorft),  in  BvXLOxn.  j6S9,  Burrau  0/  Am.  Exhn,  (Washington, 


86  1IATHA8 

1004):  BBAsmm  dv^Bottbboubo,  HitL  dm  naUon*  ^eMHatet    auf  der  kurf QntL    Stemwaite  endeckt  worden  amd** 


Uy^SSSr  iJiLJi^S"^  (Ma^eim   1778)     In  the  foUowing  yeaj^^ 

(Pari..  1M6);   Idim.   ManuaerU  TrotnH   (2    voCPMto.  liahed  a  Latm  work  On  the  same  subject.    Tlie  obeer- 

1869-70);  Idku,  Catalogue  dea  ean^^tntmrnfOM  (Pans.  1800);  vations,  which  were  made  in  good  faith,  were  evi- 

Brihton.  The  M<nta  Cfftrntclet  (Phl^           1M2);  Idsic.  dentlv  due  to  an  optical  illusion.    Mayer  spent  some 

AfiMfican  ff«ro-AfvM«  (Philadelphia.  1882);  iDrnM^Baaavaofan  ^^^J /^^  ji^^ '»'*^i^^^'«'*^*'°y**:    ««»j«  a^/^w  owuw 

Ameneaniei  (Phitdelphia,  isioJiiMM.  The  Amerwm  Race  tune  at  Pans  m  the  interests  of  his  science,  and  visited 

(Now  York,  1891)  rlDBic,  The  NoHve  Caiendart  of  Central  Amer-  Geimanv  in  company  with  CassinL    Upon  the  invita- 

SL w^2t?^S!l£y.S^ Im^A^S^^^l/M^Jii  ^on  of  Empress  Catlierine  of  Russia,  he  went  to  St 

dTJSS^ot^f^^  Petembuig  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  17(». 

Idxm,  Biblioteca  do  avtorea  Yueateeoe  (iMrida.  1881);  Idbm,  He  WBs  a  member  of  numerous  learned  societies,  in- 

HieL  ant^de  ywaatoi  (MArida,  1881;  1883)  ;CA8TtLi3,I>ji>-  eluding  those  of  Mannheim,  Munich,  London,  Bologna, 

eumano  HtetdneOt  B%qgrAfieo  y  Monumental  de  Yvcaian  (M6rida,  JCxiZ^^JZ^  J  t>u  M-^i  !ju  L     iST  J,  .rTuiTZi  V\  .^^i^ 

1866);  CoooixuDo.iHfi2  A»yii«i«an  (Madrid,  1688;  reprint.  GSttmgen,  and  Philadelphia.   He  pubbshed  a  number 

1842  and  1867);  Dias  dkl  Cashlxx),  Verdadera  Hiet.  de  la  Con^  of  memoirs,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  "  Basis 

lS5iUQjLRciArQAAcU,HiaLdelaOuerradeCaetaeenYueatan  Venens       (St.    Petersburg,     1769),       Pantometnim 

(M6nda.  1865) ;  G6mara,  Crdniea  de  la  Nueva  BapaHa  (jSoxoapoBa^  Pacechianum,  seu  instnimentum  no  vum  pro  elicienda 

Jt^lL^'fti'iiS^iSr^Jl^^^  exunastationedistantialociinacoeesi''  (Mannheim, 


vieima  RdatiOn  de  la  DeOtrvyeidn  de  lae  Indiae  (SeviUe.  1652;  (1782),  etc. 

1822)  (for  translations  see  Cabas.  BARTOLOMiDB  Las);  Hiof-  Somxcrtoobl,  BiU.  de  la  Comp,  de  JUue^  V,  7M;  Dxlam- 

DIBTA,  HieL  Edeeidatiea  Jndwna  (Heiaoo.  1870);  Morlbt,  Cor-  bsb  in  Biogr,  C/mwra.,  s.  ▼. 

antiaua  de  Yucatan,  opp.  to  Srspaxif ^b  YuetUan,  Landa*b  He  belonged  to  the  old  Knglwh  famuy  of  Maybew  or 

Relaeidn,  d>  Bourbourq,  «*J J  P»™3«fr  feSSf  iftT^-TjSv  Mayow  of  Winton,  near  Salisbury,  Wiltshire,  which 

ilSl^.  %I2''aJ!i^'2ik^SS;;^^^Z%'^f^^^  hacf  endured  much'per^^     tor  the  F^^. '  On  10 

Mezioo,  1829-^0);  ftrABR.  Bthnoo,  of  Southern  Mexico  in  Pro-  July.  1583,  he  entered.  With  his  elder  brother  Heniy, 

ce«l^ot^pjrt  A««i.  5^^  the  English  OoUege  at  Reims,  where  he  dispUyed 

In  Indian  Mexico  (Chicago,  1908);   Stspbuvs,    incuiente  of  „^^_^:^,X^.,„  *«i«„*„    ««-i   wwm^/.mwI   ^k«.  4^«Z»JL  I^a 

Travel  in  Central  iiiiMnco.  Chiapae  and  Yucatan  (2  vols.,  conspicuous  talents,  and  received  the  tonsure  and 

New  York,  1841.  etc);  Idbm,  Ineidenu  of  Travel  m  Yucatan  mmor  orders  on  22  August,  1500.    Thenoe  proceeding 

(2  vols..  New.  York.  I8«)i  Thomas,  Aide  to  the  StuA,  of  ^  Rome,  he  there  continued  his  studies  until  his  or- 

Z^LTimTl^u^'Dl^^'SS^  dination,  after.which  he  left  for  the  EngUsh  missiciis 

sZteenth  Rep.,  Bur,  of  Am,  Ethn,  (Washington,  1807);  Idbm,  m  1595.    Havmg  served  for  twelve  years  on  the  m]»- 

jfc«onCoWor5y«<jwM  inATw  gion  aB  a  secular  priest,  he  joined  the  Benedictine 

S'A^!fS5K:"{«^^^^^  Order,  being  profei^d  b^r  Doi  Sigebert  Buddey,  the 

Maya  and  Mexican  Manuecripte  in  Third  Rep,,  Bur,  of  Am.  sole  survivor  of  the  English  congregation,  m  his  cell  st 

B^n'^CW^/f^^^^*  l?85)l .iDf  *«.  J^w"*'*'  iy^  ?f  ^St^  the  Gatehouse  prison,  Westminster,  on  21  November, 

and  Central  America  tn  Nmeleenth  Rep.,  Bur,  of  Am.  Ethn.  lagyr  rpu^  «i^  l?„»KoU  ^^n <*«»».» 4^;^.«  «#^ii1«1  4U...  !.»«« 
(Washington.  1900) ;  Idbm,  A  Study  of  the  Manueeripl  Troano  1607.  The  Old  English  congregation  WoiUd  thus  have 
in  Cont.  to  North  Am.  Ethnology,  V  (Washinffton.  1882);  ended  With  Dom  Buckley,  had  not  Blaybew  and  an- 
TnoMveoit,  Ruine  of  Xkichmook,  Yucatan  (Fidd  Museum,  ^ther  secular  priest.  Father  Robert  Sadler,  sought  pro- 
Chicago,  1898):  ToRQUBMAOA.  Monarquia  Indiana  (3  vols.,  *^^«^„  ♦!,.,- ^,«o*»l,r;«„  :*o -^«*;«,.;*«  ♦^♦kT^^L^* 
BeviuT  1615;  Madrid.  1723);  yxiMmfn,  The  Katunee  of  Maya  fession,  thus  preservmg  ito  oontmmty  to  the  present 
Hiot.  in  Pfoc.  Am.  Antiq,  Soe.  for  1879  (Woreester,  1880)  |  Vi-  day.  Under  these  two  new  members  the  En^ish 
LLAOTOBRWB  Soto-Mator,  HitL  do  la  Conquieta  de  la  Promneia  congregation  began  to  revive.  Becoming  affiliated 
delaltMd  (Madrid.  1701).  ^^  ^j^^  Spanish  congregation  in  1612,  it  was  given  an 

JA1CB8  MooxBT.  equal  share  in  St.  Lawrence's  monastery  at  Dieulwart, 

Lorraine,  henceforth  the  centre  of  the  Enj^lish  oongie- 

Mayer,  Christian,  Moravian  astronomer,  b.  at  cation.    Retiring  from  the  English  mission  in  1613, 

Mederizenhi  in  Moravia,  20  Aug..  1719;  d.  at  Heidel-  Mayhew  took  up  his  residence  at  Dieulwart,  where  he 

beig,  16  April,  1783.    He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  filled  the  office  of  prior  from  1613  to  1620.   The  union 

at  Mannheim  on  26  Sept.,  1745,  and  after  completing  of  the  three  congregations  engaged  on  the  l<^£j»«h 

his  studies  taught  the  humanities  for  some  tune  at  missions  had  for  some  time  been  canvassed,  and  in 

Aschaffenburg.    He  likewise  cultivated  his  taste  for  1617  Mayhew  was  appointed  one  of  the  nine  definitora 

mathematics,  and  later  was  appointed  professor  of  to  bring  this  about.    That  of  the  English  and  Spanish 

mathematics  and  physics  in  the  University  of  Heidel-  congregations  was  accomplished  by  the  Apostolic 

berg.    In  1755  he  was  invited  by  the  Elector  Palatine  Brief.  "Ex  incumbenti",  of  August,  1619,  but  tbe 

Charles  Theodore  to  construct  and  take  charge  of  the  membera  of  the  Italian  congregation  refused  to  become 

astronomical  observatory  at  Mannheim.    Here  as  well  united.    The  seal  for  the  strict  observanoe  of  the 

as  at  Schwetzingen,  where  he  had  also  built  an  observ-  Benedictine  Rule,  so  characteristic  of  Dieulwart.  wsa 


atory,  he  carried  on  his  observations  which  led  to  in  great  part  due  to  Blayhew's  relit 

numerous  memoirs,  some  of  which  were  published  in  strength  of  character.    From  1623  until  his  death  be 

the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  London.    One  of  acted  as  vicar  to  the  nuns  at  Cambrai.    His  remaioa 

lus  observations,  recorded  in  the  "Tables  d'aberration  Ue  in  the  parish  church  at  St.  Vedast.    The  most  im- 

et  de  mutation"  (Mannheim,  1778)  of  his  assistant  portant  of  Biayhew's  works  are:  "Sacra  Institutio 

Mesge,  gave  rise  to  much  discussion.    He  claimed  to  Baptisandi  etc."    (Douai,  1604);   "Treatise  on  the 

have  discovered  that  many  of  the  more  conspicuous  Groundes  of  the  Olde  and  Newe  Religion  etc."  (s.  1., 

stars  in  the  southern  heavens  were  surrounded  b^  .  1608);  "Congregationis  AngUcanie  Oidinis  8.  B^ie- 

smaller  stare,  which  he  rM;arded  as  satellites.    His  dictiTrqphsa"  (2  vols.,  Reims,  1619. 1625). 

contemporaries,  including  Herschel  and  Schroter,  who  Prm,  De  IU%tei.  AngL  Script.,  p.  816;  wood,  Athena  0»en„ 

were  provided  with  much  more  powerful  telescopes,  J/rl;,l¥M'^J^'*  I>odi>.  £*t«rc*  awtory.  fi;  Sf^^^^iX 

failed  to  verify  his  observations.   Sayer,  however,*del  g&.X:  ba^^Tvf"^  ^'*^'  ^^'  ^'  ^'  ^"^'''  ^ 

fended  their  reality  and  replied  to  one  of  his  critics,  '                             Thoicas  Ejennedt, 

the  well-known  astronomer  Father  HoU,  in  a  work        »-      -  a     ti-    

cntitied  "GrOndHche  Vertheidigung  neuer  Beobach-  >»V  Laws.    See  Kulturkampf. 

tungen  von  Fixstem-trabanten  welche  lu  Mannhftim  Majnas.    See  Chacsapotab,  Dioobsb  of. 


HAYMI 


87 


MATKOOTB 


Maynay  Cuthbeht,  Blessed,  martyr,  b.  at  Youl- 
fiton,  near  Barnstaple,  Devonshire  (baptised  20  March, 
1513-4);  d.  at  Launceston,  Cornwall,  29  Nov.,  1677. 
He  was  the  son  of  William  Mayne;  his  uncle  was  a 
schismatical  priest,  who  had  him  educated  at  Bam- 
sta^e  Grammar  School,  and  he  was  ordained  a  Prot- 
estant minister  at  the  ace  of  eighteen  or  nineteen. 
He  then  went  to  Oxford,  first  to  St.  Alban's  Hall,  then 
to  St.  John's  College,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A. 
in  1570.  He  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Blessed 
Edmund  Campion,  Gregory  Martin,  the  controver- 
sialist. Humphrey  lEly,  Henry  Shaw,  Thomas  Bram- 
ston,  O.S.B.,  Henry  Holland,  Jonas  Meredith,  Roland 
Russell,  and  William  Wiggs.  The  above  list  shows 
how  strong  a  Catholic  leaven  was  still  working  at 
Oxfonl.  £ate  in  1570  a  letter  from  Gregory  Martin 
to  Blessed  Cuthbert  fell  into  the  Bishop  of  London's 
hands.  He  at  once  sent  a  pursuivant  to  arrest  Blessed 
Cuthbert  and  others  mentioned  in  the  letter.  Blessed 
Cuthbert  was  in  the  country,  and  being  warned  by 
Blessed  Thomas  Ford,  he  evaded  arrest  by  going  to 
Cornwall,  whence  he  arrived  at  Douai  in  1 573.  Having 
become  reconciled  to  the  Church,  he  was  ordained  in 
1575;  in  Feb.,  1575-6  he  took  the  degree  of  S.T.B. 
at  Douai  University;  and  on  24  April,  1576  he  left  for 
the  finglish  mission  in  the  company  of  Blessed  John 
Payne.  Blessed  Cuthbert  took  up  his  abode  with  the 
future  confessor,  Francis  Titian,  of  Golden,  in  St. 
Probus's  parish,  Cornwall.  Tnis  gentleman  8u£feied 
imprisonment  and  loss  of  possessions  for  this  honour 
done  him  bv  our  martyr.  At  his  house  our  martyr 
was  arrestea  8  June,  1577,  by  the  high  sheriff,  Gren- 
ville,  who  was  knighted  for  the  capture.  He  was 
brought  to  trial  in  ^ptember;  meanwhile  his  impris- 
onment was  of  the  harshest  order.  His  indictment 
under  statutes  of  1  and  13  Elisabeth  was  under  five 
counts:  first,  that  he  had  obtained  from  the  Roman 
See  a  "faculty",  containing  absolution  of  the  queen's 
subjects;  second,  that  he  had  published  the  same  at 
Golden;  third,  that  he  had  taught  the  ecclesiastical 
authoritv  of  ibe  pope  in  Launceston  Gaol;  fourth, 
that  he  had  brougnt  into  the  kinedom  an  A^us  Dei 
and  had  deliveredthe  same  to  Mr.  Tregian;  mth,  that 
he  had  said  Mass. 

As  to  the  first  and  second  counts,  the  martyr  showed 
t^t  the  supposed  "faculty"  was  merely  a  copy 
printed  at  Douai  of  an  announcement  of  the  Jubilee 
of  1575,  and  that  its  application  having  expired  with 
the  end  of  the  jubilee,  ne  certainly  had  not  published 
it  either  at  Golden  or  elsewhere.  As  to  the  third 
count,  he  maintained  that  he  had  said  nothing  definite 
on  the  subject  to  the  three  illiterate  witnesses  who 
asserted  the  contrary.  As  to  the  fourth  coxmt,  he 
urged  tibat  the  fact  that  he  was  wearing  an  Agnus  Dei 
at  the  time  of  his  arrest  was  no  evidence  that  he  had 
brought  it  into  the  kingdom  or  delivered  it  to  Mr. 
Trepan,  As  to  the  fifth  ooimt,  he  contended  that  the 
findSngof  a  Missal,  a  chalice,  and  vestments  in  his  room 
did  not  prove  that  he  had  said  Mass. 

Nevertheless  the  jury  found  him  guilty  of  high 
treason  on  ^H  counts,  and  he  was  sentenced  acoord- 
inzly.  His  execution  was  delated  because  one  of  the 
judges,  Jeffries,  altered  his  mind  after  sentence  and 
sent  a  report  to  the  Privy  Council.  They  submitted 
the  ease  to  the  whole  Blench  of  Judges,  which  was 
divided  in  opinion,  though  the  weight  of  authority 
inclined  to  Jeffries's  view.  Nevertheless,  for  motives 
of  poUey,  the  Council  ordered  Uie  execution  to  pro- 
ceed. On  the  night  of  27  November  his  cell  was  seen 
by  the  other  prisoners  to  be  full  of  a  strange  bright 
fight.  The  details  of  his  martyrdom  must  be  sought 
in  the  works  hereinafter  cited.  It  is  enough  to  say 
that  all  agree  that  he  was  insensible,  or  almost  so, 
when  he  was  disembowelled.  A  rough  portrait  of  the 
martyr  still  exists;  and  portions  of  his  skull  are  in 
various  places,  the  largest  being  in  the  Carmelite 
Convent,  Lanbeme,  Cornwall. 


Gamm.  LtMt  of  the  Bnglith  Martyre,  II  (London,  1905),  204* 
222,  650;  Pollbh,  Cardinal  AUm*9  Brtefe  Hutorit  (London, 
1008),  104-110;  Ok>pbb  in  l>iU.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.;  Chaixonbh, 
Biemoira  of  Mianonary  PrieaU,  I;  Gillow,  B{bl.  Diet,  Bng. 
Caih.,  8.  v.;  DABBNTfActe  of  the  Privy  Council  (London,  ISOO- 
1907),  IX,  375,  390;  X,  6,  7,  85. 

John  B.  Wainewbioht. 

Maynooth  OoUege,  The  National  Collar  of  Saint 
Patrick,  at  Maynoo^  in  Countv  Kildare,  about 
twelve  miles  from  Dublin,  founded,  in  the  year  1796. 
Ireland  at  that  date  still  had  her  own  Parliament;  and, 
although  Catholics  could  not  sit  in  it,  the  spirit  of  tol- 
eration and  liberty  which  had  swept  over  the  United 
States  and  France  could  not  be  excluded  from  its 
debates.  Several  relaxations  had  already  been  granted 
in  the  application  of  the  penal  laws,  and  it  is  to  the 
credit  or  Irish  Protestants  that  during  their  short 
period  of  Parliamentary  liberty  (1782-1801),  they 
should  have  entered  so  heartily  on  the  path  of  national 
brotiierhood,  and  have  given  to  the  world  two  such 
illustrious  names  as  Edmund  Burke  and  Henry  Grat- 
tan.  It  was  to  these  two  men,  more  than  to  any 
statesmen  of  their  time,  that  the  foundation  of  May- 
nootii  CoU^  may  be  ascribed.  Other  circumstances 
were  also  uivourable.  On  the  one  hand,  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  *'  United  Irishmen"  (1798)  proclaimed 
the  doctrine  of  universal  toleration  and  liberty  of  con- 
science. On  the  other  hand,  the  British  Government 
was  glad  of  an  opportunity  to  withdraw  youn^  Irish 
ecclesiastics  as  far  as  possible  from  the  revolutionary 
influences  to  which  they  were  exposed  on  the  Conti- 
nent. Moreover,  soldiers  were  needed  at  a  time  when 
war  was  raging  or  threatening  on  all  sides;  and  it  had 
become  necessary  to  conciliate  the  class  from  amongst 
whom  the  best  Irish  soldiers  could  be  recruited. 

In  1794  a  memorial  was  presented  to  the  Irish  Vioe- 
rov  by  Dr.  Troy,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  on  behalf  of 
all  the  Catholic  prelates  of  Ireland.  This  memorial 
set  forth  that  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  Ireland 
had  never  been  chared  with  disaffection  to  the  State 
or  irregularity  in  their  conduct;  that,  on  the  contrary, 
the^  had  been  complimented  more  than  once  for  incul- 
cating obedience  to  the  laws  and  veneration  for  His 
Majesty's  royal  person  and  government.  It  was  then 
pointea  out  that  the  foreign  colleges,  in  which  about 
400  students  were  educated  for  the  Irish  mission,  had 
been  closed,  and  their  fimds  confiscated;  and  that, 
even  had  they  remained  open,  it  would  no  longer  be 
safe  to  send  Irish  students  abroad,  "lest  they  should 
be  contaminated  with  the  contagion  of  sedition  and 
infidelitv"  and  thus  become  the  means  of  inlroducing 
into  Ireland  the  pernicious  maxims  of  a  licentious  phil- 
osophy. Tlie  memorial  was  favourably  received,  and, 
in  the  following  vear  Mr.  Pelham,  the  Secretary  of 
State,  introduce  his  Bill  for  the  foundation  of  a 
Catholic  college.  The  Bill  passed  rapidly  through  all 
its  stages  and  received  the  royal  assent  on  5  June, 
1795.  The  management  of  the  institution  was  given 
to  a  Board  of  Tru^ees  who  were  to  appoint  all  the  offi- 
cers, the  president,  masters,  fellows,  and  scholars;  to 
fix  their  salaries  and  make  all  necessary  by-laws,  rules, 
and  statutes.  No  Catholic  could  act  as  trustee,  or  fill 
any  other  office,  or  be  admitted  as  a  student,  who  did 
not  first  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  prescribed  for 
Catholics  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  years  of 
Geoive  III.  No  Protestant  or  son  of  a  Protestant 
couldbe  received  in  the  new  Academy  under  the  sever- 
est pains  and  penalties.  The  Lord  Chancellor,  how- 
ever, and  several  judges  of  the  high  courts,  were  to  act 
as  Trustees  ex  officio.  The  endowment  voted  by  Par- 
liament was  £8,000  (about  $40,000)  a  vear.  Dr. 
Thomas  Hussey,  a  graduate  of  the  Irish  College  of  Sal- 
amanca, who  bad  long  been  chaplain  to  the  Si>anish 
Embassy  in  London,  was  appointed  first  president. 
The  next  step  was  to  fix  upon  the  site.  At  first  Dub- 
lin, or  the  suDurbe  of  Dublin,  seemed  to  offer  the  chief 
advantages;  finally,  however,  after  a  variety  of  pron 


BUTKOOTB  88  lUTHOOTR 

posab  had  been  considered,  Maynooth  was  ohoaen,  be-  land  the  financial  Bubeidy  to  Maynooth  from  Uie  Stat 

oauae  it  waa  coaBidered  favourable  to  the  morals  and  underwent  various  changes  and  gave  rise  to  debat<«  ol 

studies  of  a  coUeee ;  also,  because  the  Duke  of  Leinster.  considerable  acrimony  in  the  House  of  Commons.     Id 

who  had  alwaya  been  a  friend  of  the  Catholics,  wiahea  1845,  however,  the  government  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 

H>  have  the  new  institution  on  his  estate.     The  money  raised  the  nant  from  £9,500  (about  947,500)  to  £26,- 

Knted  by  Parliament  was  voted  for  a  Catholic  col-  000  ($130,000)  a  year  and  placed  it  on  the  consoU- 

_  ]  for  the  education  of  the  Irish  clergy :  tliat  was  the  dated  fund,  where  it  formed  part  of  the  ordinary  na> 

expreas  intention  of  the  Government,  out,  as  the  Act  tional  debt  and  was  free  from  annual  discussion  on  the 

vras  drawn  in  general  terms,  the  trust«eB  proceeded  to  estimatea.     Sir  Robert  Peel  also  granted  a  aum  oi 

erect  a  college  for  laymen  m  connexion  with  the  eo-  £30,000  (about  1160,000)  for  suitable  buildings;  and 

clesiastical    eBtabliahtDent.     This    college    was    sup-  it  was  then  that  the  Gothic  structure  deaisned  bf 

pressedby  theGovemment  in  1801.     Another  lay  col-  Pugin,  one  of  the  handsomest  coliece  buildings  in 

lege  was  then  erected  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Europe,  was  erected.     The  diseBtablishmeDt  of  the 

ecclesiastical  college,  and  was  continued  up  to  1817  Irish  Church  by  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1869,  had  seriousfi- 

underlay  truateea.    The  establishment  of  various  col-  nancial  results  for  Maynooth  which  was  also  diaeo- 


uT**.  Uatnootb  Oou^aam,  iMMi-tna 

n  of  about  £370,000  (about  Sl,850.- 

_._    ._._ ,.  _ _„_._,.     ._..^  .        „  ice  for  all  to  enable  the  coUege  to  coD- 

foundation  of  Maynooth,  the  whole  country  being  con-  tinue  its  work.  This  sum  was  invested  for  the  most 
vulsed  by  the  rebeilion  of  1798,  the  general  disturb-  part  in  land,  and  has  been  very  ably  managed  by  the 
anoe  found  an  echo  in  the  new  institution.  Of  its  trustees.  Some  of  the  moat  prominent  Catholic  lay- 
sixty-nine  students  no  fewer  than  eighteen  or  twenty  men  in  the  country,  such  as  the  Earls  of  Fingall  and 
wejs  'xpelted  for  having  taken  the  rel>el  oath.  Kenmare,  had  acted  as  Trustees  up  to  the  date  of 
y<X  valuable  endowment  was  obtained  for  the  new  the  disendowment:  from  that  time  no  further  lay 
/college  on  the  death  of  John  Butler,  twelfth  Baron  truateea  were  appointed. 

/  Dunboyne,  who  had  been  Bishopof  Cork  from  1763  to  Among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  past  presidents 
j  1786.  On  the  death  of  hh  neptfew,  Pierce  Butler,  the  of  Maynooth  were  Hussey,  Renchan,  and  Russell,  a 
eleventh  baron,  the  bishop  succeeded  to  the  title  and  full  account  of  whom  is  to  be  found  in  the  College  His- 
estatea.  This  tempore!  diRnity,  however,  proved  his  tory  by  the  Most  Rev,  Dr.  Healy,  Archbishop  of  Tuam. 
undoing;  he  gave  up  his  bighopric,  abjured  the  Catho-  Dr.  Hussey  was  the  first  president,  and  to  his  tart, 
lie  Faith,  and  took  a  wife.  In  hi^  last  illness  he  re-  judgment  and  skill  the  success  of  the  original  project 
pented  and  endeavoured  to  make  reparation  for  his  was  mainly  due.  Dr.  Rer.ehan  wos  a  distinguiahed 
conduct  by  willing  his  property  in  Meath,  valued  at  Irish  scholar,  who  did  a  peat  deal  to  rescue  Iri^ 
about  £1,000  (about  15,000)  a  year,  to  the  newly  manuscripts  from  destruction.  Dr.  Russell  is  chiefl; 
founded  college.  The  wi!!  was  disputed  at  law  by  the  known  for  his  "Life  of  Cardinal  Me»»ofanti"  Bjnd  foi 
next  of  kin.  The  case  of  the  college  was  pleaded  by  the  part  he  took  in  the  conversion  of  Cardinal  New- 
John  Philpot  Curran,  and  a  compromise  was  effected  man.  Amongst  the  most  distinguished  teachers  and 
S"  whichaboutonehalf  of  the  property  was  secured  to  men  of  letters  who  shed  lustre  on  the  college  during 
!  college.  Theincomefrom  the  bequest  became  the  its  first  century  were  John  MacHale,  Paul  O'Brien, 
foundation  of  a  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  a  higher  Daniel  Murray,  Edmund  O'Reilly,  Nicholas  Callan, 
courw  of  ecclesiastical  studies  in  the  case  of  such  stu-  Patrick  Murray,  Mathew  Kelly,  John  O'Hanlon,  Wit 
dents  as  should  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  liam  Jennings,  James  O'Kane,  and  Gerald  Molloy.  II 
ordinary  course.  This  is  still  known  as  the  "  Dun-  is  interesting  to  notice  that,  on  the  staff  of  the  coUegi 
boyne  Establishment".     After  the  union  with  Eng-  in  its  early  years,  were  four  French  refugeea — the  Bev 


IIAYO 


89 


IIAYO 


Peter  J.  Debrt,  the  Rev.  Andrew  Dari^y  the  Rev. 
Louis  Delahogue  and  the  Rev.  Francis  Anglade — all 
Doctors  of  the  Sorbonne.  On  the  original  staff  may 
also  be  found  the  name  of  the  Rev.  John  C.  Eustace, 
auliior  of  the  well-known  "Classical  Tour  in  Italy". 
Amongst  the  distinguished  personages  who  have  visited 
fche  colleee  were  Tnackeray,  Montalembert,  Carlyle, 
Robert  Owen,  Cardinal  Perraud,  Huxley,  the  late 
Empress  of  Austria,  and  King  Edward  VII.  The  col- 
lege possesses  several  memorials  of  the  Empress  of 
Austria,  who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  during  her 
visits  to  Ireland.  The  Centenary  of  the  foundation  of 
the  college  was  celebrated  in  1895,  on  which  occasion 
congratmations  were  sent  from  all  the  Catholic  educa- 
tional centres  in  the  world.  The  college  library  con- 
tains upwards  of  40,000  volumes.  It  possesses  a  great 
many  rare  and  precious  works  and  some  very  valuable 
manuscripts.  The  AtUa  Maxima  which  was  opened 
about  the  year  1893  was  the  gift  to  his  Alma  Mater  of 
the  Right  Rev.  Mgr.  MacMahon  of  the  Catholic  Univer- 
sity at  Washington,  D.  C,  and  previously  of  New 
York.  The  chapel  which  has  just  been  completed  is  a 
work  of  rare  beauty  both  in  design  and  ornamentation. 
Maynooth  has  already  sent  out  into  the  world  upwards 
of  7,000  priests.  Her  alumni  are  in  all  lands  and  in 
almost  every  position  that  an  ecclesiastic  could  oc- 
cupy. The  average  number  of  students  in  recent 
years  is  about  600.  The  ordinary  theological  course  is 
four  years,  and  the  extra  course  of  the  "  Dimboyne  Es- 
tablishment "  three  years  more.  Students  in  arts  and 
philosophy  have  to  graduate  in  the  National  Univer- 
sit V  of  which  Maynooth  is  now  a  "recognized  College ". 
dcAJLT,  Maynowi  CoUeqe.  Ita  Centenary  History  (Duolin, 
1895);  Calmdarium  CoUegii  Sancti  PcUricii  (Dublin);  A  Record 
of  tke  Ctntenarjf  CeUbraUon  .  .  .  Maynooth  College  (Dublin, 
1805);  CamxoaUxa  Correapondenee;  Memoira  of  Viecotmt  CaatU' 
reagh;  Life  and  Timea  of  Henry  Grattan;  Hanaard'a  Parliament 
tary  Debatea;  Correepondence  of  Edmund  Burke;  QLADflTONrn, 
The  Stale  in  ite  Rdaium  to  the  Church;  Hooan,  Maynooth  College 
and  the  Laity  lOuhVin).  J.  F.  HoOAN. 

Majro,  School  of  (Irish  Magh  Eo,  which  means, 
according  to  Colgan,  the  Plain  of  the  Oaks,  and,  ac- 
cording to  O'Donovan,  the  Plain  of  the  Yews),  was 
situated  in  the  present  parish  of  Mayo,  County  Mayo, 
almost  equidistant  from  the  towns  of  Claremorris  ana 
Castlebar.  The  founder,  St.  Colman,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  was  in  all 
probability  a  native  of  the  West  of  Ireland,  and  made 
his  ecclesiastical  studies  at  lona  during  the  abbacy  of 
the  renowned  Segenius.  After  the  death  of  Finian,  the 
second  Bishop  of  Lindisfame,  Colman  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  His  episcopate  was  much  disturbed  by  a 
fierce  renewal  of  tne  ^Etster  Controversy.  Colman 
vigorously  advocated  the  old  Irish  custom,  and  cited 
the  example  of  his  predecessors,  but  all  to  no  effect. 
At  a  synod  specially  summoned  to  meet  at  Whitby  in 
664,  the  Roman  method  of  calculation  triumphed,  and 
Colman,  unwilling  to  abandon  the  practice  oi  the 
"holy  elders  of  the  Irish  Church",  resolved  to  quit 
Lindisfame  forever. 

In  668  he  crossed  the  seas  to  his  native  land  again, 
and  in  a  remote  island  on  the  western  coast  called 
Inishbofin,  he  built  a  monastery  and  school.  These 
things  are  dearlv  set  out  in  the  **  Historia  Ecclesias- 
tica  "  of  Bede,  who  then  proceeds  to  describe  how  thev 
ted  to  the  foiuding  of  the  great  school  of  Mayo.  "  Col- 
man the  Irirfi  Bishop ",  says  Bede,  "  departed  from 
Britain  and  took  with  him  aU  the  Irish  that  he  had 
assembled  in  the  Island  of  Lindisfame,  and  also  about 
thirty  of  the  English  nation  who  had  oeen  instmcted 
in  thie  monastic  life.  .  .  •  Afterwards  he  retired  to  a 
small  island  which  is  to  the  west  of  Ireland,'  and  at 
9ome  distance  from  the  coast,  called  in  the  language  of 
the  Irish,  Inishbofinde  [island  of  the  white  cow). 
Arriving  there  he  built  a  monastery,  and  placed  in  it 
the  modes  he  had  brought  with  him  of  both  nations". 

It  appears,  however,  the  Irish  and  English  monks 
Oottld  not  agree.-    "Then  Colman  sought  to  put  an  end 


to  their  dissensions,  and  travelling  about  at  length 
foimd  a  place  in  Ireland  fit  to  build  a  monastery, 
which  in  the  language  of  the  Irish  is  called  Magh  So 
(Mayo) ''.  Later  on  we  are  told  by  the  same  historian 
that  this  monastery  became  an  important  and  flour- 
ishing institution,  and  even  an  episcopal  see. 

Though  Colman,  we  may  assume.  Uved  mainly  with 
his  own  coimtrymen  at  Inishbofin,  ne  took  a  deep  and 
practical  interest  in  his  new  foundation  at  May(^— 
''  Mayo  of  the  Saxons  ",  as  it  came  to  be  called.  In  the 
year  670,  with  his  consent,  its  first  canonical  abbot  was 
appointed.  This  was  St.  Uerald.  the  son  of  a  northern 
English  king,  who^  annoyed  at  tne  way  Cohnan's  most 
cherished  convictions  had  been  slighted  at  Whitby, 
resolved  to  follow  him  to  Ireland.  The  school  gained 
greatly  in  fame  for  sanctity  and  learning  under  this 
youthful  abbot.  About  679  St.  Adamnan,  the  illus- 
trious biographer  of  St.  Columba.  visited  Mayo  and, 
according  to  some  writers,  ruled  tnere  for  seven  years 
after  Gerald's  death.  This  latter  statement  is  not,  on 
the  face  of  it,  improbable  if  Gerald,  as  Colgan  thinks, 
did  not  live  after  697;  but  the  Four  Masters  give  the 
date  of  his  death  as  13  March,  726,  and  the  "  Annals  of 
Ulster"  put  the  event  as  late  as  731.  After  Gerald's 
death  we  have  only  the  record  of  isolated  facts  con- 
cerning the  school  he  ruled  so  wisely  and  loved  so  well, 
but  they  are  often  facts  of  considerable  interest  and 
importance.  We  read,  for  example^  that  the  monas- 
tery was  burned  in  783,  and  agam  m  805;  also — but 
only  in  the  old  Life  of  St.  Gerald — ^that  it  was  plun- 
dered by  Turgesius  the  Dane  in  818.  That  the  mo- 
nastic grounds  were  regarded  as  exceptionally  holy  we 
can  gather  from  the  entry  that  Domhnau,  son  of 
Torlough  O'Conor,  Lord  of  North  Connacht,  "the 
glory  and  the  moderator  and  the  good  adviser  of  the 
Irish  people  "  (d.  1 176) ,  was  interred  therein.  That  it 
had  the  status  of  an  episcopal  see  long  after  the  Synod 
of  Kells  (1162),  is  clear  from  the  entry  under  date  of 
1209,  recording  the  death  of  "  Cele  O'Duffy,  Bishop  of 
Magh  Eo  of  the  Saxons". 

Mayo,  like  the  other  ancient  Irish  monastic  schools, 
suffered  from  the  raids  of  native  and  foreigner,  espe- 
cially during  the  fourteenth  century.  But  it  survived 
them  all,  for  the  death  under  date  1478  is  recorded  of 
a  bishop—"  Bishop  Higgins  of  Mayo  of  the  Saxons". 
The  time  at  which  the  See  of  Mayo,  on  the  ground  that 
it  contained  not  a  cathedral  but  a  parochial  church, 
was  annexed  toTuam,  cannot  with  certainty  be  ascer- 
tained^ but  as  far  back  as  1217,  during  the  reign  of 
Hononus  III,  the  question  was  before  the  Roman 
authorities  for  discussion.  It  was  probably  not  set- 
tled definitively  for  centuries  after.  James  O'Healy, 
"Bishop  of  Mayo  of  the  Saxons",  was  put  to  death 
for  the  Catholic  Faith  at  Kilmallock  in  1579. 

Bede,  Historia  Ecdeaiaatica  (London,  1907);  Ck>LOAN,  Acta 
Sanctorum  Hibemia  (Louvain,  1645);  O'Hanlon,  Livea  of  the 
Iriah  Sainta  (Dublin,  s.  d.);  He  alt,  JrekauTa  Ancient  Schoola 
and  Scholara  (5th  ed.,  Dublin,  1906). 

John  Healt. 

Mavo  Indiana. — ^An  important  tribe  occupying 
some  nfteen  towns  on  Mayo  and  Fuerte  rivers,  south- 
ern Sonora  and  northern  Sinaloa,  Mexico.  Their  lan- 
guage is  loiown  as  the  Cahita,  being  the  same  as  that 
spoken,  with  dialectic  differences,  by  their  neighbours, 
the  Tehueco  and  ¥aqui,  and  belonging  to  the  Piman 
branch  of  the  great  Shoshonean  stock.  The  name 
Mayo  is  said  by  Ribas  to  be  properly  that  of  their 
principal  river  and  to  signify  "boundary".  The 
known  history  of  the  tribe  begins  in  1532  with  the 
naval  expedition  of  Diego  Hurtado  de  Mendosa,  who 
landing  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fuerte,  went  up  the  river 
to  the  villages,  where  he  was  killed  with  his  com- 
panions while  asleep.  In  1533  a  land  expedition 
imder  Diego  de  Guzman  crossed  through  their  country 
and  penetrated  to  beyond  the  Yaqui  river  in  the 
north.  In  1609-10  they  aided  the  Spaniards  against 
the  Yaqui,  the  two  tribes  being  hereditary  enemies, 


MATOB 


90 


BSAYOTTl 


juid  on  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  it  was  made 
a  condition  of  the  agreement  that  tlie  Yaqui  should 
live  at  peace  with  the  Mayo.  In  1613.  at  their  own 
request,  the  first  mission  was  establishea  in  their  ter- 
ritory by  the  Jesuit  Father  Pedro  Mendez,  who  had 
visited  them  some  ^ears  before,  over  3000  persons 
receiving  baptism  within  fifteen  days,  in  a  popula- 
tion variously  estimated  at  from  nine  to  twenty  thou- 
sand. Withm  a  short  time  seven  mission  churohes 
were  built  in  as  manv  towns  of  the  tribe.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  regular  mission  work  in  Sonora. 

In  1740  the  Mayo,  hitherto  friendly  as  a  tribe, 
joined  the  Yaqui  in  revolt,  apparently  at  the  instance 
of  Spanish  officials  jealous  of  missionary  influence. 
The  churches  were  burned,  priests  and  settlers  driven 
out  of  the  country;  and  altnough  the  rising  was  put 
down  in  the  following  year  after  hard  fighting,  it 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of  the  missions 
waich  culminated  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in 
1767.  After  their  departure  the  Indians  were  for 
some  time  without  religious  teachers,  but  are  now 
servea  by  secular  priests.  In  1825--7  they  again 
joined  the  Yaqui,  led  by  the  famous  Bandera  (Juzu- 
canea)  in  revolt  against  Mexican  aggression,  and  have 
several  times  since  taken  occasion  to  show  their  sym- 
pathy with  their  fighting  kinsmen.  The  Mavo  are 
sedentary  and  industrious  farmers  and  mine  laborers, 
and  skilful  artisans  in  the  towns.  They  cultivate 
com,  squashes,  beans,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  maguey, 
from  which  last  they  distill  the  mescal  intoxicant. 
Their  houses  are  Ught  structures  of  cane  and  poles, 
thatched  with  palm  leaves.  Thev  are  all  Cathohc  ana 
very  much  Mexicanized,  though  they  retain  their 
language,  and  have  many  of  the  old  Indian  ideas  still 
latent  in  them.  Their  principal  town  is  Santa  Cruz  de 
Mayo,  and  they  are  variously  estimated  at  from  7000 
to  10,000  souls.  The  most  important  study  of  the 
language,  the  Cahita,  is  a  grammar  (Arte)  by  an 
anonymous  Jesuit  published  in  Mexico  m  1737. 

Albqiub,  Hi^.  de  tn  Compafiia  de  Jeeue  (Mexico,  1841); 
Bancroft,  North  Mexican  Staiea  (San  Francisco,  1886-0); 
RiBAS,  Tnwnphoa  de  Nueatra  Santa  Fe  (Madrid,  1645);  Ward, 
Mexico  in  18M7  (London,  1828). 

James  Moonet. 

Mayor  (Major,  Maib),  John,  ako  called  Joannes 
Majoris  and  Haddingtonub  Scotus,  a  Scotch  phi- 
losopher and  historian,  b.at  Gleghomie  near  Hadding- 
ton. 1496;  d.  at  St.  Andrew's,  1550.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Paris,  where  he  was  gradu- 
ated as  master  of  arts  in  the  Uollege  of  St.  Barbe  in 
1494  and  as  doctor  of  theology  in  the  College  of  Mon- 
taigu  in  1505.  He  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  re- 
maining life  as  professor  of  logic  and  theology;  from 
1505-18  at  the  University  of  Paris,  from  1518-23  at 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  from  1523-6  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrew's,  and  from  1525-1530  again  at 
Paris.  In  1530  he  returned  to  St.  Andrews  and  was 
made  provost  of  St.  Salvator's  College,  a  position 
which  ne  occupied  till  his  death.  One  of  the  greatest 
scholastic  philosophers  of  his  times,  he  had  among  his 
pupils  the  future  Scotch  reformers  John  Knox,  Pat- 
rick Hamilton,  and  Cieorge  Buchanan.  In  philosophy 
he  was  the  chief  exponent  of  the  nommalistic  or 
terministic  tendency  which  was  then  prevalent  at 
the  Universitv  of  Paris,  while,  as  a  canonist,  he  held 
that  the  chief  ecclesiastical  authority  does  not  reside 
in  the  pope  but  in  the  whole  Church.  In  like  manner 
he  hela  tnat  the  source  of  civil  authoritv  lies  with  the 
people  who  transfer  it  to  the  ruler  and  can  wrest  it 
from  him,  even  by  force,  if  necessary.  He  remained  a 
Catholic  till  his  death,  though  in  1549  he  advocated 
a  national  (3hurch  for  Scotland .  His  numerous  literary 
productions  were  all  written  in  Latin.  His  chief 
work,  "  Historia  majoris  Britannise,  tam  Angliae  quam 
Scotiae"  (Paris,  1521  and  Edinburgh,  1740),  trans- 
lated  into  English  for  the  first  time  by  Archibald  Con- 
st^bte. "  History  of  Grater  Britain,  both  En^nd  and 


Scotland  "  (Edinburgh,  1892),  is  written  in  barbaioai 
Latin,  but  truthf ull)r  and  faithfully  portrays  the  au- 
thor's vigour  and  spirit  of  indep^endenoe.  His  other 
works  are  mostlv  philosophical,  vis. :  a  commentary  on 
Peter  Lombard  s  Books  of  Sentences  (Paiis^  1508), 
"Introductorium"  or  a  commentarv  on  Aristotle's 
dialectics  (Paris,  1508),  the  lectures  which  he  delivered 
on  logic  in  the  College  of  Montaigu  (Lyons,  1516), 
commentaries  on  Aristotle's  physical  and  ethical  writ- 
ings (Paris,  1526),  "Qusestiones  logicales']  (Paris, 
1528),  a  commentary  on  the  four  Gospels  (Paris,  1 529). 
He  was  also  the  first  to  edit  the  so-called  "  Reportata 
Parisiensia ''  of  Dims  Scotus  (Paris,  1517-8). 

Mackat,  Life  of  John  Major,  prefized  to  Constable's  ^.  of 
Mayor's  History  (fidinburKh,  1802).  The  precedinc  work  ood- 
taiaa  also  a  complete  list  of  worlcs  written  by  Mayor,  and  an  es- 
timate of  them  by  the  translator;  Brown,  Oeorge  Buchanan, 
Humaniat  and  Reformer  (Edinburah,  1800),  38-^1;  Law.  John 
-  -      -     r.  1802. 


Major  in  ScoUiah  Review,  July, 


BflCHASL  OtT. 


Mayonma  Indians,  a  noted  and  savage  tribe  of 
Panoan  linguistic  stock  ranging  the  forests  between 
the  VcaLyah,  the  Yavari  and  the  Marafion  (Amazon) 
rivers,  in  north-east  Peru  and  the  adjacent  portion  of 
Brasil.  From  the  fact  tnat  some  of  them  are  of  light 
skin  and  wear  beards,  a  legend  has  grown  up  that  they 
are  descended  from  Spanish  soldiers  of  Ursua's  expedi- 
tion (1569),  but  it  is  probable  that  the  difference  comes 
from  later  admixture  of  captive  blood .  As  a  tribe  they 
are  full-blood  and  typically  Indian.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  story  may  have  ori^nated  from  a 
confusion  of  "  Maranones  ",  the  name  given  to  the  fol- 
lowers of  Ursua  and  Aguirre,  with  Mayorunas.  which 
seems  to  be  from  the  Quichua  language  ot  Peru. 
Markham  interprets  the  name  as  "Men  of  Muyii" 
(Muyu-runa),  indicating  an  ancient  residence  about 
Moyobamba  (Muyubamba),  farther  to  the  west.  One 
of  their  subtribes  is  known  as  "Barbudo"  (Spanish, 
Bearded).  Other  subtribes  are  Itucale,  Musmio  or 
Musquima,  Urarina.  The  Mayonma  tribes  were  among 
those  gathered  into  the  missions  of  the  Mainas  province 
(see  Maina  Indians)  in  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries,  being  represented  in  the  mimions  of 
San  Joaouin  (Mayoruna  proper),  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 
Carmen  (Mayoruna  proper),  and  San  Xavier  (Urarina 
and  Itucale).  By  tne  repeated  attacks  of  the  Portu- 
guese slave-hunters  (see  Mameluco)  between  1680 
and  1710,  and  the  revolts  of  the  mission  Indians  in 
1695  and  1767  the  Mayoruna  were  driven  to  take 
refu^  in  their  forests  and  are  now  wholly  savage  and 
particularly  hostile  to  either  whites  or  Indians  who 
enter  their  territory,  even  successfully^  repelling  a 
joint  government  exploring  expedition  in  1866.  In 
person  they  are  tall  and  well  formed,  with  rather  deli- 
cate features,  going  perfecthr  naked,  with  flowing  hair 
cut  across  the  forehead.  Instead  of  bows,  they  use 
spears,  clubs  and  blow-guns^  and  are  famous  for  the 
strength  of  the  deadly  curan  poison  with  which  they 
tip  their  arrows.  They  avoid  the  river  banks  and  do 
not  use  canoes.  The  charge  of  cannibalism  has  not 
been  proven.    (See  also  Pano.) 

RoDRiouES,  AmoMonaey  MaraAon  (Madrid,  1684);  Hkbtas, 
Caudooo  de  Uu  Lenguaa  (Madrid,  1800);  Mamcram,  Tribea  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Amaeone  in  Joum.  Anih,  Jhet.,  XX IV  (LomdoB, 
1885);  Brznton,  The  American  Race  (New  York,  1891). 

Jamsb  Moonet. 

Mayotte,  Koasl-M,  and  Oomoro,  PsEFscrnsz 
Apostouc  of  (Matotta,  Nossibea,  et  Comorje). — 
Mayotte  is  the  farthest  south  and  most  important  ol 
the  group  of  Comoro  Islands:  Mayotte  (Maote),  An- 
juan  (Insuani),  Mohilla  (Moheli).  and  Great  Comoro 
(Komoro,  i.  e.  where  there  is  nre,  or  Angasidya) 
These  islands,  with  Nossi-B^  (lar^  island)  and  Santa 
Maria  (Nossi  Burai,  Nossi  Ibrahim),  form  the  archi- 
pelago known  as  ''the  Satellites  of  Madagascar''. 
The  Comoro  Islands,  with  their  craggy  evergreen 
shores,  look  like  the  cones  of  submerged  groves 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  deep  abuses.    The 


MkYtL                                91  MATBON 

sutnmitB  are  not  all  of  the  same  altitude;  the  high-  ex-Jesuit  Hochbichler  (Augsburg,  1790).     Lindner 

est  point  of  Mayotte  is  not  over  1800  feet,  whereas  j^ra)  enumerates  58  literary  productions  of  Ma3rr. 

the  highest  peak  of  Anjuan  is  about  5000  feet,  They  include  21  dramas,  four  volumes  of  sermons 

while   the   central   cone  of  Great  Comoro,  whose  (Augsburg,  1777),  numerotis  occasional  poems,  and 

volcanic   activity  is   not  yet  exhausted,  rises  to  various  treatises  on  philosophical,  theological,  and 

over  7000  feet.    Two  monsoons,  conseouently  two  mathematical  subjects. 

seasons,  alternately  affect  the  climate  of  tne  archipel-  Baadbr.  Lexi/um  vertlorbener  baieriaeher  SckrifUidler  dM  IB 

.«  which  lBsometimee;n8ited  by  cyclones.   .TheeoU  U'^JiiItr^^^''^^:£iJl!lSlf;J^L't!:^^ 

of  these  islands  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  m  abun-  mdb  Bayem  aeii  1760,  U  (Ratisbon,  1880),  137-41. 

dance  vanilla,  cloves,  sugar-cane,  coffee,  etc.   The  total  Michael  Ott. 
Ix>pu]ation  is  about  80,000,  mostlv  African  negroes, 

often  erroneously  called  Makoas  (a  Mosambique  tribe).  Mavron  (de  Matbonis),  Francis,  b.  about  1280, 
lliere  are  also  some  Sakalavaa  from  Madagascar,  probaBly  at  Masrronnes,  Department  of  Basses- Alpee, 
mostly  former  slaves  freed  when  the  islands  were  oc-  ne  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at  the  neiehbour- 
cuptea  by  the  French.  This  Comoro  Archipelago  was  ing  Di^e  (or  Sist^ron).  He  had  been  teaching  at 
for  many  centuries  an  Arabian  colony  ana  was  once  the  Umversity  of  Paris  for  a  long  time  as  bachelor  of 
very  prosperous.  As  they  navigated  alone  the  Afri-  theology,  when,  on  24  May,  1323,  John  XXII.  at  the 
can  coast,  the  merchants  of  Idumea  and  Yemen  ere-  request  of  King  Robert  of  Naples,  commanded  the 
ated  a  special  and  interesting  tvpe,  the  Comorinos.  chancellor  of  the  university  to  confer  the  degree  of 
Commingled  with  these  Arabian  half-breeds,  once  the  master  of  theology  upon  him.  On  27  Sept.,  1317,  St. 
sole  owners  of  the  country,  there  are  now  Banians  Elsear  de  Sabran  died  at  Paris  in  Francis's  arms, 
from  Cutch  and  Hindus  from  Bombay,  who  carry  on  Francis  was  afterwards  sent  to  Italy,  and  died  at  Pia- 
almost  the  entire  commerce.  There  are  also  a  few  £u-  censa,  probably  26  July,  1327.  It  is  generallv  ac- 
ropean  or  Creole  planters  and  officials  from  Reunion  cepted  that  Ma3rron  introduced  the  famous  "Actus 
or  Mauritius.  In  1843  the  French  €k>vemment,  Sorbonicus"  into  the  University  of  Paris.  This  oc- 
called  in  by  the  sultan,  took  possession  of  Mavotte,  curred  at  a  disputation  lasting  from  5  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m., 
which  became,  with  Noesi-B^,  a  post  of  surveillance  in  which  the  aavocate  had  to  defend  his  theses  against 
over  Madagascar.  All  these  islands  now  form  a  any  and  all  opponents  who  might  offer  to  attack  them, 
French  colony.  In  1844,  Mayotte,  Noesi-B^,  and  the  without  any  assistance  and  without  either  food  or 
Comoros  were  made  an  Apostolic  prefecture  and  con-  drink.  Denifie  has,  however,  denied  this  ("Ghartu- 
Eded  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Hol)r  Ghost.  In  1898,  larium  Universit.  Paris",  II,  Paris,  1891, 273),  though 
when  the  same  missionaries  were  given  the  ecclesiasti-  only  for  this  reason,  that  no  "document"  mentions 
cal  administration  of  Northern  Madagascar,  these  anything  about  an^  such  introduction  by  Ma3rron. 
smaller  islands  and  Santa  Maria  were  attached  to  the  Ma3rron  was  a  distinguished  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus, 
Apostolic  Vicariate  at  Diego  Suares.  Santa  Maria  whose  teaching  he  usually  followed.  He  was  sur- 
and  No88i-B6  have  resident  missionaries;  the  other  named  Doctor  acutus,  or  Doctor  illuminatus,  also  Ma- 
islands  are  regularly  visited,  gister  abstractionum.    His  "Scripta  super  4  libros 

The  population  of  these  islands  is  hugely  Moham-  Sententiarum"  appeared  at  Venice,  in  1507-8,  1519- 

medan  and  therefore  strongly  anti-Christian;  for  this  20,  1520, 1526, 1556,  1567. 

reason  little  religious  progress  is  made.    In  all  of  the  The  treatises  added  thereto.  "De  formalitatibus", 

islands  there  are  hardly  three  or  four  thousand  Catho-  "De  prime  principle ",  "Expfanatio  divinorum  ter- 

lic8.    There  are  no  Protestants.  minorum",  are  not  his,  but  have  been  collected  from 

If wMMMt  CatMiem  (Rome,  1907).  his  teachinjgs.    The  "  De  univocatione  entis",  edited 

Alexander  Lb  Rot.  ^th  other  writings  at  Ferrara  before  1490,  is  Mayron's. 

His  work  "ConSatus",  on  the  sentences,  appeajred 

Ma]fr,  Beda,  a  Bavarian  Benedictine  philosopher,  at  Treviso  in  1476;  Basle,  1489,  1579(?);  Cologne, 

apologist,  and  poet,  b.  15  January,  1742,  fg  Daiting  1510.    Distinct  from  the  latter  are  the  "Conflatile", 

near  Augsburg;  d.  28  April,  1794,  m  the  monastery  of  Lyons,  1579; ''  Passus  super  Universalia",  "  Pnedica- 

Heiligenkreua  in  DonauwOrth.     After  studying  at  menta",  ete.,  Bologna,  1479,  Lerida,  1485,  Toulouse, 

Scheyem,  Augsburg^  Munich  and  Freiburg  im  Breis-  1490,  Venice.  1489;  "Sermones  de  tempore  cum  Qua- 

gku.  he  took  vows  in  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  drasesimali  ,  two  editions  without  place  or  date, 

eiUgenkreus  on  29  September,  1762,  studied  theol-  prooably  Brussels,  1483,  and  Cologne,  Venice,  1491 ; 

ogy  at  the  common  study-house  of  the   Bavarian  "Sermones  de  Sanctis",  Venice,  1493,  Basle,  1498 

Benedictines  in  Benediktbeuern,  was  ordained  priest  (with  fourteen  dissertations);  "TVactatus  de  Conoep- 

on  6  Januaxy,  1766,  taught  mathematics,  philosophy,  tione  B.M. V. ",  ed.  Alva  ana  Astorga  in  "  Monumenta 

rhetoric,  theology  and  canon  law  at  his  monastery,  Seraphica  pro  Immaculata  Conceptione",  Lou  vain, 

where  he  was  also  librarian  and,  for  some  time,  prior.  1665;  "Theologies  Veritates  in  St.  Augustinum  de 

The  last  28  years  of  his  life  he  spent  in  his  monastery,  Civitate  Dei ",  Cologne,  1473,  Treviso,  1476,  Toulouse, 

with  the  exception  of  four  years  during  which  he  was  1488,  Venice,  1489(?) ; ' '  Veritates  ex  libris  St.  Augustini 

pastor  of  Mandhng.    He  was  an  exemplary  religious  deTrinitate",  Lyons,  1520.    There  are  many  other  un- 

and  a  popular  preacher,  but,  as  a  philosopher,  he  was  edited  writings  on  tJie  works  of  St.  Auguistine,  and 

imbued  with  the  subjectivistic  criticism  ol  Kant  and,  philosophical  and  theological  works,  which  testifv  to 

as  a  theologian,  he  was  irenic  beyond  measure.    In  a  the  extensive  knowledge  and  the  penetrating  intellect 

letter  to  Henry  Braim,  superintendent  of  the  Bavarian  of  this  eminent  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus.    The  treatise, 

sdiools,  he  sete  forth  the  opinion  that  a  unification  of  "  De  celebratione  Missse'',  is  also  probablv  by  him  (cf. 

the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  religion  is  possible.  Ad.  Frans,  "Die  Messe  im  deutechen  Mittelalter'', 

Braun  published  this  letter  without  the  consent  of  the  Freiburg,  1902, 493-5). 

author  under  the  title  "  Der  erste  Schritt  zur  ktlnftigen  Rinontoo  a  Pists*  lAber  Conformitatum  in  AndUda  Franeit- 

Verdmgunj   der    totholischen    und    evan«li«chen  Z^'Z'^Tm^^i^i^^l^^i^lti^S&^r^. 

Kircfae      (Mumch.  1778).     In  consequence  Mayr  was  %bid.  (1906).  86-6;  Sbaralka,  Supplementum  ad  Seriplorea  6.M. 

censured  by  the  Bishop  of  Augsburg  and  temporarily  (Rome,  1806).  267-72  (2nd  ed.,  ibid..  1908),  283-88:  Job.  a 

theidigung  der  natttrhchen,  chnsthchen  und  katho-  (Paria.  1884— );  ^tAckl,  QemhichUder  Philotopkie  imMitui' 

UschenReUgion  nach  denBedOrfnissen  unsererZeiten"  oUer,  II  (Maim.  1865).  II.  868:  HAuRtsAu.  HutoifdelaPhUoto' 

in  three  put.  (Au«burg.  1787-90),  b  «,uaUy  «nic  ^S:^?^:^r^^Z^^^i^i^:-^S^SSi£''S^^ 

and  permeated  with  the  pyosophy  of  Kant.    It  was  ds  mnmn  huL,  U  (ParU,  1907),  3271. 

placed  on  the  Index  in  1792  and  ably  refuted  by  the  Michael  BihLt 


02 

Huuin,  Jules,  b.  either  at  Rome  or  Kt  Pudna  in    contributed  to  his  elevation,  and  Anne'a  aiTeetion  for 
the  Abruui,  of  a  very  old  Sicilian  family,  14  July,    bimwasthebest  guarantee  of  bis  continuanoe  in  cA«. 
1602;  d.  Bt  Vincennes,  8  March,  1661.    His  father  was     The  firecise  character  of  his  relations  with  Anne  of 
majordomototheColonnafamilyat  Rome.Oneof  bis     Austria  is  one  of  the  enigmas  of  history.    Certain  let- 
uncles,  GiulioManarini  (1544-1622),  a  Jesuit,  enjoyed     ters  of  Anne  of  Austria  to  Mazarin,   publidied  by 
agreat  teputatioD  in  Italy,  particularly  at  BoloRna,  as     Cousin,  and  admissioiis   made   by  Anne  to  Hme  dt 
a  preacher,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sacred     Brienne  and  recorded  in  tbe  Memoirs  of  Lom^oie  de 
eloqueooe.    His  youth  was  full  of  excitement:   he  ao-     Brienne,  prove  that  the   queen  regent  was  deeptj 
companied  the  future  Cardinal  Colonna  to  Madrid;  be     attached  to  tbe  cardinal.    Still,  "  Toy  sensibilitiea  have 
was  tn  turn  a  captain  of  pontifical  troops  and  then  a     no  part  in  it ",  she  said  to  Hme  de  Brienne.     Few  bit- 
pontifical  diplomat  in  tbe  Valtelline  War  (1624)  and     tonans  ^e  credence  to  Anne's  assertion  on. this  point, 
tbe  Mantuan  War  of  Succession  (162S-30).   The  truce     and  some  go  so  far  as  to  accept  tbe  allegations  of  tbe 
which  be  negotiated  (26  October,  1630)  between  the     Prinoess  Palatine  in  her  letters  of  1717,  1718,  and 
French,  on  one  side,  and  the  Spaniards  and  the  Duke     1722,  according  to  which  Anne  of  Austria  and  Uasaiin 
of  Savoy,  on  the  other,  woo  for  him  the  esteem  of     were  married.    M.  Loiseleur,  who  has  made  a  careful 
Eicbeheu,  who  was  well  pleased  at  hia  letting  Pignerol     studjr  of  the  problem,  believes  that  Maiarin  was  never 
married;   it  is  certain  that  he  retained  tbe  title  and 
inaignin  of  a  Cardinal  until  hia  death;  probably  be  wai 
even  a  cardinal-priest,  though  he  never  visited  Rome 
after  his  elevation  to  the  purple  and  seems  never  to 
have  received  the  hat.    And  m  any  case  be  held  tbe 
title  of  Bishop  of  Metr  from  1653  to  1658. 

Maiarin  oontinued  Ricbeheu's  pohcy  against  tbe 
House  of  Austria.  Aided  by  the  victories  of  Cond^ 
and  Turenne,  he  succeeded  in  bringing  tbe  -Thinj 
Yeats'  War  to  a  conclusion  with  tbe  Treaties  of  Uun- 
■ter  and  OvabrUck  (Treaty  of  Westphalia),  which 
gave  Alsace  (without  Straaburg)  to  France;  and  in 
1659  be  ended  the  war  with  Spain  in  the  Peace  iJ  Ibe 
Pyrenees,  which  gave  to  France  Rouseillon,  Cerdagne, 
and  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Twice,  in  1651  and 
1652,  he  was  driven  out  of  tbe  country  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary Fronde  and  the  Fronde  of  the  Nobles,  with 
the  innumerable  pamphlets  (Af  omriruides)  which  tbev 

fublished  against  him,  but  the  bnal  defeat  of  both 
rondes  was  the  victory  of  royal  absolutism,  and 
Maiarin  thus  prepared  the  way  for  Louis  XIV's  ixn- 
nipotence.     Lastly,  in  165S,  he  placed  Germany,  in 
some  sort,  under  tne  young  king's  protection,  by  form- 
ing the  League  of  the  Rhine,  wbicb  was  destined  to 
hold  the  House  of  Austria  in  check.    Tbue  did  he  Uy 
tbe  foundation  of  Louis  XIV's  greatneas.    His  foreign 
policy  was,  as  Richelieu's  had  often  been,  indiffennt 
to  the  interests  of  Catholicism:   the  Peace  ot  Wtsi- 
phalia  gave  its  solemn  sanction  to  tbe  legal  extstence 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  French.   The  Spaniards  tried     of  Calvinism  in  Germany,  and,  while  the  nuncio  vaintf 
to  injure  him  with  Pope  Urban  VIII,  but  the  influence     protested.  Proteaf"*  """~-  "»~  ~.~-~i~»  —i.i.  ™ 
of  Cardinal  Antonio  Barberini  and  a  letter  from  Rich-     ulariw^^bishoprii 
elieu  saved  him.    He  became  canon  of  St.  Jobn  Lat-     opposition  to  Austria. 

eran,  vice-legate  at  Avignon  (1632),  and  nuncio  extra-  hira  whether  the  monmi^iiim.  liiuitujic  nas  nspcoru 
ordinsryinFrance(1634).  The  Spaniards  complained  or  contemned  in  a  foreign  country:  he  was  Crtunwell'i 
that  in  this  last  post  Maiarin  made  it  bis  exclusive  ally.  Towards  tbe  Protestants  he  pureued  an  adroit 
business  to  support  Richelieu's  policy,  and  he  was  dis-  poliM".  In  1654  Cromwell  (^>ened  negotiations  with 
missed  from  the  nunciature  by  Urban  VIII  (17  Jan.,  the  Calvinists  of  the  South  of  France,  who,  the  year 
1636).  Soon  after  leaving  the  papal  service^  he  went  before,  had  taken  up  arms  in  Ard&cbe  to  secure  certain 
to  Paris,  placed  himself  at  Richelieu's  disposition,  and  hberties  for  themselves.  Maiarin  knew  how  to  keep 
was  naturalized  as  a  French  subject  in  April,  1639.  the  Calvinists  amused  with  fine  words  promises  and 
Richelieu  commissioned  hira,  late  in  1640  to  sign  a  calculated  delays:  for  six  yeara  they  believed  tbem- 
secret  treaty  between  France  and  Prince  Thomaa  of  selves  to  be  on  the  eve  of  recovering  their  privileges, 
Savoy,  and  caused  him  to  be  made  a  cardinal  on  16  and  in  the  end  they  obtained  nothing.  The  cardmaJ 
Dec.,  1641.  Shortly  before  Richelieu's  death,  Maiarin  well  knew  how  to  retain  in  the  king's  service  valuable 
by  a  piece  of  clever  management,  had  been  able  to  Protestants  like  Tureane  and  Gassion. 
effect  the  reoccupation  of  S«ian  by  French  troops,  and  Hia  personal  relations  with  the  HolySee  were  hardly 
Richelieu  on  biadeathbed(4  Dec.,  1642)  recommended  cordial.  Ilecould  not  prevent  Cardinal  Pamfili.afriend 
him  to  the  king.  On  the  death  ot  Louis  XIII  (14  May,  ot  Spain,  from  being  elected  pope  (15  Sept.,  1644)  as 
1642),  Anne  ot  Austria,  leaving  tbe  Due  d'Orl&ins  the  Innocent  X.  He  received  in  France,  one  after  the 
shadcnry  title  of  lieutena tit-general  of  the  kingdom,  other.  Cardinals  Antonio  and  Francesco  Barberini, 
gave  the  r^ility  of  power  to  Masarin,  who  firet  pre-  nephews  of  the  late  pope,  and  the  Bull  of  21  Februan', 
tended  to  be  on  the  point  of  setting  out  for  Italy,  and  1646,  fulminated  by  Innocent  X  against  the  cardinals, 
then  pretended  that  his  acceptance  ot  office  was  only  whoWereabsentinj!  themselves  without  autboriaation 
provisional,  until  such  time  as  tbe  peace  of  Europe  (by  tbe  tenor  of  which  Bull  Hasarin  himself  waa  bound 
should  be  re-established.  to  repair  to  Rome),  was  voted  by  the  Parliament  rf 

But  Maiarin,  like  Richelieu,  was,  in  the  event,  to     Paris  "  null  and  abusive  ".    Maiann  obtained  a  deaee 
retain  power  until  his  death,  first  under  the  queen  re-     of  the  Royal  Council  forbidding  money  to  be  remitted 

Etit  and  then  under  the  king  after  Louis  Xlv  (q.  v.)     to  Rome  for  expediting  Bulls,  there  was  a  show  of  pre- 
d   attained  his  majority.    His   very   humble  ap-     paring  an  expedition  against  Avignon,  and  Innocent 


peuAnoe  and  maaner,  bis  gentle  and  kindly  ways,  had    X,  yielding  to  these  menaces,  ended  by  restoring  ibmi 


CARDINAL  MAZARIN 

FAlNTINa  BY  PHILIPPE  D8  CHAMPAQNE 


*        '  *-••     L^       i.. 


1_-J 


MAZATEC                               93  MAZATBG 

groperty  and  dignities  to  Mazarin'sprot^gds,  the  Bar-  dea  Matannadea  (3  vols..  Paris.  1849-^51);    Idem,  Ckoie  de 

ermi.    Following  up  his  policy  of  bullying  the  pope,  ^ff*'T*^*i?,V^^»  ??";'  1852-63);  Labu>ie. Nouvmu^up' 

\M          :^  -««*  ♦w^  a^4^«  *^  ♦v.«   v«««^;+««   ^^Jl*  *Ji  plemerU  o  la  btblwffraphte  dea  Mazarmadet  (Paria,  1904);  ChA- 

Maaarin  sent  two  fleets  to  the  Neapolitan  coast  to  nvEU  Hist,  de  France  pendant  la  minority  de  Louis  XJVi^vo)s., 

seize  the  Spanish  presidios  nearest  to  the  papal  fron-  Paha,  1879-80);    Idem.  Hiai.  de  France  sous  le  minisl  re  da 

tiera.     Apart  from  this,   he  had   no  Itahan  policy,  Af«ann  (1661-1661)  (3  vola.,  Paris,  l^);   Perkins.  Fron^ 

1    ^L.  !,;.,«    ««^   u:«  A^^^^^^*i^^r.  ;«   T*«ut  under  Mazann  (2  vols..  New  York,  1886);  Hassall.  Mazann 

properly  speaking,  and  his  demon^rations  in  Italy  (London.  1903);  BovaKAi9r,Hiat.de8ffue^eaetdeanioociationa 

had  no  other  object  than  to  compel  Spam  to  keep  her  md  pr6eidhrent  le  tmiU  de  Weati^lie  (Paris,  1727);  Idem.  Hiat. 

troops  there,  and  to  bring  the  pope  to  a  complaisant  dutraiti  deWeMphalie  (2vpl3  .Paris.  .1744);  CkjceiN,  Lm  Egliaea 

*  *  :*    J-.  ♦ I 1-  v.^^j^  «« J  ^fi^^Jir.  iur«  -«  •;« »«,  *x«*r*  calmntatea  du  M%dt,  le  cardinal  Mazann  et  Cromwell^  in  Revue  dea 

atUtude  towards  t  ranoe  and  towards  Mazann  S  own  QueatUma  Hiatoriguea  (July.  1904) :  RENfeB.  Lea  nikcea  de  Maza- 

relations.    The  elevation  of  his  brother  Michael  Maz-  rin  (Paris.  1866);  Chantblauxe,  Lea  demiera  jouradeMazarin 

arin  to  the  cardinalate  (October,  1647)  was  one  of  his  g  ^^'TfS^S^fi^^i"^'  ^?Q^Sf^*Ao^5L^^'  /^o^*™*  ^""^^ 

J*    1   ^  *:-»  .r:^^.;^«  Hautafort  (5th  ed..   Pans,   1886),  393-404;    Loiseleur.  Pro- 

diplomatic  Victories.                                           ^     ,      ,  6ttm««  Awtoriguw  (Paris,  1867);  Colquhow-Grant.  Queen  «»d 

Though  not  mterested  m  questions  of  theolo^,  Cardinal  (London,  1906).                    Gsobgeb  Goyau. 
Mazann  detested  the  Jansenists  for  the  part  taken  by 

some   of  them— disavowed,   however,   by   Antoine  Masateclndiaiis.— An  important  Mexican  tribe  of 
Amauld — ^in  the  Fronde,  and  for  their  support  of  Car-  Zapotecan  linguistic  stock,  occupying  the  mountain 
dinal  de  Retz  (q.  v.).    A  declaration  of  the  king  in  region  of  north-east  Oaxaca,  chiefly  in  the  districts  of 
July,  1653,  and  an  assembly  of  bishops  in  May,  1655,  Cuicatlan  and  Teotitlan,  and  estimated  to  number 
over  which  Mazarin  presided,  gave  executive  force  to  from  18,(XX)  to  20,0(X)  souls.    Their  chief  town,  Huan- 
the  decrees  of  Innocent  X  against  Jansenism.    The  tla,  with  its  dependent  villages,  has  a  population  of 
order  condemning  Pascal's  "  Provmdales  "  to  be  burnt,  about  7,000.    Their  popular  name  "  Mazateca  "  is  that 
the  order  for  the  dismissal  of  pupils,  novices,  and  given  them  by  the  Aztec  and  is  sai^  to  mean  "  Lords  of 
postulants  from  the  two  convents  of  Port-Royal,  the  the  Deer";  they  call  themselves  A-d,  with  nasal  pro- 
formula  prepared  by  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergv  nunciation  (Bauer).    Although  closely  related  to  their 
against  tne  *■  Augustmus"  (1661),  which  formula  all  neighbours,  the  formerly  highly  cultured  Zapotec  and 
eodesiasUcB  had  to  sign — all  these  must  be  regard^  Mixtec,  the  Mazatec  were  of  ruder  habit,  as  oecame  a 
as  episodes  of  Mazarin's  anti-Jansenist  policv.   On  his  race  of  mountaineers.    Like  the  Zapotec  also  they 
deathbed  he  warned  the  king  "not  to  tolerate  the  maintained  their  independence  against  the  powerful 
Jansenist  sect,  not  even  their  name  *\  Aztec  empire,  with  which  they  maintained  almost  con- 
Having  little  by  little  become  "as  powerful  as  God  stant  defensive  war.     The  principal  portion  of  the 
the  Father  when  the  world  began^'    enjoying  the  present  state  of  Oaxaca  was  brought  under  Spanish 
revenues  of  twenty-seven  abbacies,  always  ready  to  dominion  by  .Gpit^  in  1521.    In  1535  it  was  estab- 
enrieh  himself  by  whatever  means,  and  possessing  a  lishcd  as  a  cSocese,  w^h  Father  Juan  Lopez  de  Barate 
fortune  equivalent  to  about  $40,000,000  in  twentieth-  o£  the  Dominieans,  ap  its  first  bishop,  tnrough  whose 
century  American  money,  Mazarin,  towards  the  end  influence  thecDttiv'ir^on  of  the  natives  was  intrusted 
of  his  life,  multiplied  in  Paris  the  manifestations  of  hjs. :  to  i»iasibnari6d'of  thsft  order,  by  whom  it  was  success- 
wealth.    He  organized  a  free  lottery,  at  lus  owntex-  fully  accomplished  iii  spite  of  the  extreme  devotion  of 
pense,  with  prizes  amounting  to  more  than  a  milKon  the  Indians  to  their  ancient  rites,  even  to  secreting  their 
francs,  c<^ected  in  his  own  palace  more  wonderfu^.isacrediiitia^  beneath  the  very  altar  in  order  that 
things  than  the  king's  palace  contained^  had  no  ob|ec-..  .th^y  mi^t  ttxijftiis|»clied  do  reverence  to  the  one  while 
tion  to  presiding  at  tournaments,  exhibitions  of  hprs^  .appearing  to  veqi^rat^  the  other.    In  1575  the  Jesuits 
manship.  and  ballets,  and  patronized  the  earliest  'jrejnfQtcea.the.I)Qnudbans.    Even  to-day,  while  out- 
efforts  oi  the  comic  poet  Moh^re.    The  young  LotiiB'  "^  wardly  conforming  to  all  the  rules  of  the  Church  and 
XIV  entertained  a  profound  affection  for  him  and,  manifesting   the   greatest   deference   and    affection 
what  is  more,  fell  in  love  with  the  cardinars  two  nieces,  toward  the  resident  priests,  the  Mazatec  retain  most 
Olympe  Mandni  and  Marie  Mancini,  one  after  the  of  their  ancient  beliets  and  many  of  their  ceremonies, 
other.    Mazarin  sent  Marie  away,  to  prevent  the  king  By  tolerance  of  the  Mexican  Government  they  main- 
from  entertaining  the  idea  of  marrying  her.    But  if.  tained  their  tribal  autonomy  under  their  hereditaiy 
for  reasons  of  state,  he  refused  to  become  the  uncle  oi  chiefs  up  to  1857,  as  also  a  professional  keeper  of  their 
tl^  King  of  France,  it  seems  that  there  were  moments  sacred  traditions,  the  last  of  whom,  a  descendant  of 
when  he  dreamed  ot  the  tiara:  the  Abb^  Choisy  asserts  their  ancient  kings,  died  in  1869. 
that  Mazarin  died  "  in  the  vision  of  being  inaA  pope  ".  Their  native  cult,  still  kept  up  to  a  large  extent  in 
One  remimscenoe  at  least  of  the  old  political  ideas  of  combination  with  the  newer  rites,  was  an  animal  wor- 
Christian  Europe  is  to  be  found  in  his  will:  he  left  the  ship,  the  snake,  panther,  alligator,  and  eagle  being 
pope  a  fund  (600,000  livres)  to  prosecute  the  war  most  venerated.    The  soul  after  death  went  to  the 
against  the  Turks.   The  cardinal,  who  throughout  his  "kingdom  of  animals",  where  for  a  long  time  it  wan- 
life  had  given  but  little  thought  to  the  interests  of  dered  about,  being  assisted  or  attacked  by  the  animals 
Christianity,  seems  to  have  sought  pardon  by  remem-  there,  according  as  the  dead  person  had  been  kind  or 
bering  them  on  hb  deathbed.   The  same  will  directed  cruel  to  them  in  life.     At  one  point  in  the  journey  the 
the  foundation  of  the  College  of  the  Four  Nations,  for  soul  was  assisted  across  a  wide  stream  by  a  black  dog. 
the  free  education  of  sixty  children  from  those  prov-  It  seems  to  have  been  held  that  the  soul  was  finally  re- 
inces  which  he  had  united  to  France.    To  this  college  incarnated  in  an  animal.    Hence  in  many  villages 
he  bequeathed  the  library  now  known  as  the  Biblio-  black  dogs  are  still  kept  in  ahnost  every  family  and 
th^ue  Mazarine.     Mazarin's  nieces  made  princely  buried  in  the  grave  with  the  owner.    The  ancient  sow- 
marriages:  Anne  Marie  Martinozzi  became  tne  Prin-  ing  and  harvest  rites  also  are  still  kept  up,  with  inyo- 
oesae  de  Conti;  Laura  Martinozzi,  the  Duchesse  de  cation  of  the  animal  gods  and  spirits  of  the  mountain, 
Mod^ne;   Laure  Mancini  died  in  1657,  Duchesse  de  and  burial  of  curious  sacred  bundles  in  the  fields 
Mercceur;  Olympe  Mancini  became  Comtesse  de  Sois-  Marriages  and  baptisms  are  solemnized  in  regular 
sons;  Hortense  Mancini,  Marquise  de  la  Meilleraie  and  church  form  by  the  priest,  but  the  baptism  is  followed 
Duchesse  de  Mazarin;   Marie  Mancini,  Countess  Co-  later  by  a  house  festival,  of  which  a  principal  feature 
lonna;  Marie  Anne  Mancini,  Duchesse  de  Bouillon.   All  is  the  washing  of  the  godfather's  hands  in  order  to 
these  women,  and  particuliarly  the  last  four,  had  sin-  cleanse  him  of  the  sin  which  has  come  upon  him  from 
Sularly  stormy  careers.  holding  the  infant  in  his  arms  during  the  baptism. 
CHfcRinBt  AWD  o*Atbwei,.  ed»..  LeUrea  du  Cardinal  Mazarin  The  occupations  of  the  Mazatec  are  farming  and  the 
vaiidaiu  aon  miniaiira  (Q  vols.,  Paris.  1872-1906);  Ravenel,  simpler  trades.    The  women  are  expert  weavers  of 
fid^^fSti^est^^S^i^cSS^'r^X'^'t  oottoS-    The  houses  are  light  hute  daubed  with  cUy 
Ifua^iaj^^urmddn^v^asss):  UoKEAn.BiU  and  thatched  With  palm  leaves.    Men  and  women  are 


■A%)  ^K* 


94 


f ullv  dressed,  the  women  being  picturesque  in  shawls  Mamn  dfll  YaDo,  Diocbbb  or  (MASAXixifaiB).— 

ancT  gowns  of  their  own  weaving,  decorated  with  rib-  The  city  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Trenani,  8i^, 

bons  and  worked  with  human  and  animal  figures,  par-  on  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  moutii  of  toe  ^*«— y* 

ticularly  that  of  the  eagle.    Tliey  have  stilTtheir  own  River.    It  carries  on  a  larig^  lemon  trade,  has  several 

calendM*  of  thirteen  months,  with  days  bearing  animal  tnineral  springs  in  the  vicinity,  and  occupies  Hie  site  d 

names.    The  second  volume  of  PimenteFs  "  Cuadro  "  the  emporium  of  ancient  Selinus.    The  port  very  earfp 

contains  a  sketch  of  the  languaee.    See  also  Zapotec.  attracted  a  Mecarian  colony  (630  b.  c.) ;  in  409  B.  cK 

BAMCROfT,  Hid,  Mexico,  II  @aa  rnnoisoo,  18S6);  Baubr,  was  taken  by  tioe  Carthaginians;  and  in  240  was  god- 

fSi3£^r'Sl^3?5r(S2LjWrSXi:^^  ptetelydtertrovedandteWwt«itodeiK^ 

Race  (N.  Y.,  1891):  J^mentbl,  duadro  ...  d«  lac  Lenguaa  b»um  (Marsala).    Gradually  there  arose  around  thi 

Miqeiuude  Ar^rieog  vols.,  Mexico,  18(12-6);  Stabb.  In  Indian  port  a  new  city,  captured  by  the  Saraoens  in  827.    It 

Mmeo  (Chicaco,  1908).                        Jaiobs  Moonbt.  was  later  made  the  capital  of  one  of  the  three  gntt 

Maidaism.    See  Avbsta  Ths.  ^^"^  ^^  which  the  Saracens  divided  Sicily.     In  the 

'         *  struggle  of  the  Saracens  against  the  Normans  for  the 

MiMiiodi  Charlbs  Joseph  Euosnb  db,  Bishop  of  possession  of  the  island,  iGuuara  was  hotly  contested, 

Marseilles,  and  Foimd6r  of  the  Connegation  of  the  especially  m  1076  when  the  Saracens  were  oompktehr 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  b.  at  .fix,  in  Provence,  routed  by  Ck>unt  Roger.    The  episcopal  See  of  lih- 

1  August,  1782;  d.  at  Marseilles  21  Biay,  1861.    De  b»um  was  then  trantfemd  toMassara.    Of  thebisb- 

Masenod  was  the  offspring  of  a  noble  family  of  south-  ops  of  Lilybaeum  the  best  known  is  Paschasinus,  legate 

em  France,  and  even  m  his  tender  years  he  showed  un-  of  Leo  I  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (461).    The&st 

mistakable  evidence  of  a  pious  disposition  and  a  high  Bishop  of  Massara  was  Stefano  de  Ferro,  a  rehtive 

and  independent  spirit.    Sharing  the  fate  of  most  of  Coimt  Roger  (1093).    The  cathedral  was  then 

French  noblemen  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  he  founded,  and  later  embellished  by  Bishop  Tristiano 

passed  some  years  as  an  exile  in  Italy,  after  which  he  (1157).     Other  noteworthy  bishops  were  Cardinal 

studied  for  the  priesthood,  though  he  was  the  last  Bessarion  (1449);  Giovanni  da  Monteaperto  (1470), 

representative  of  his  family.    On  21  December,  181 1 ,  who  restored  the  cathedral  and  founded  a  library ;  Bet- 

he  was  ordained  priest  at  Amiens,  whither  he  had  gone  nardo  Gasco  (1579),  of  Toledo,  founder  of  the  semi- 

to  escape  receiving  orders  at  the  hands  of  Cardinal  nary;  Cardinal  Gian  Domenico  Spmola  0^7);  the 

BCaury,  who  was  then  governing  the  arohdiocese  of  Franciscan  Francesco  M.  Graffeo  (1685).     In  1844  the 

Paris  against  tho  wishes  of  the  pope.     After  some  newly  erected  diocese  of  Marsala  was  separated  from 

▼ears  of  ecclesiastical  labours  at  Aix,  the  young  priest,  Maszara.    Massara  is  a  suffragan  of  PaJenno,  has  23 

bewailing  the  sad  fate  of  religion  resulting  amone  the  parishes,  430  priests,  5  religious  houses  of  men  and  29 

masses  from  the  French  Revolution,  gathered  to-  of  women,  3  schools  for  boys  and  25  for  girls,  and  a 

gether  a  little  band  of  missionaries  to  preach  in  the  population  of  276  000. 

vernacular  and  to  instruct  the  rural  populations  of  GAPPBLLvrn,  L«  cki$m  'd'liafia,  XXI  (Vcnioe,  1857). 

Provence.     He  commenced,  25  January,  1816,  his  XJ.  Bkihgni. 
Institute  which  was  immediate^  prolific  of  much  good 

among  the  people,  and  on  17  February,  1826,  was  Maiiella,  Camillo,  theologian  and  cardinal,  b.  at 

solemnly  approved  by  Leo  XII  under  the  name  of  Vitulano,  10  Feb.,  1833;  d.  at  Rome,  26  March,  190a 

Congregation  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  He  entered  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of  Benevento 

After  having  aided  for  some  time  his  uncle,  the  aeed  when  about  eleven  yean  of  age,  completed  his  daai* 

Bishop  of  Marseilles,  in  the  administration  of  his  dio-  cal,  philosophical,  and  theological  studies  before  his 


exchange  for  that  of  Bishop  of  Marseilles.    His  episco-  ordination  he  remained  at  Vitulano,  attending  to  the 

I»te  was  marked  by  measures  tending  to  the  restora-  duties  of  canon  in  the  parish  church,  a  position  he 

tion  in  all  its  integrity  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  held  from  his  family.    Resigning  this  office  he  entered 

De  Masenod  imceasingly  strove  to  uphold  the  rights  the  Society  of  Jesus,  4  Sept.,  1857.    On  the  expulsioa 

of  the   Holy  See,  somewhat   obscured    in   France  of  the  Jesuits  fit>m  Italy  m  1860,  be  was  sect  to 

by  the  pretensions  of  the  Galilean  Church.     He  fa-  Fourvidres,  where  after  reviewing  his  theology  for  a 

voured  the  moral  teachings  of  Blessed  (now  Saint)  year  ana  making  a  public  defence  "de  uni versa  theo- 

Alphonsus  Liguori,  w;hose  theological  system  he  was  logia",  he  taught  dogmatic  theology  for  three  yeare, 

the  first  to  introduce  in  France,  and  whose  first  life  in  and  moral  theology  for  two.    In  the  early  autumn  of 

French  he  caused  to  be  written  by  one  of  his  disciples  i867  he  came  to  America  and  taught  theology  for  two 

among  the  Oblates.     At  the  same  time  he  watched  yearstothemembersoftheSocietyof  Jesus  at  Gecvige- 

with  a  jealous  eye  ovel- the  education  of  youth,  and,  in  town  University,  Washmgton.     On  the  opening  of 

spite  of  the  susceptibilities  of  the  civil  power,  he  never  Woodstock  College,  Maryland,  he  was  appomted  pre- 

swerved  from  what  he  considered  the  path  of  justice,  feet  of  studies  and  professor  of  dogmatic  theology. 

In  fact,  bv  the  apostolic  freedom  of  his  public  utter-  While  there  he  published  four  volumes: "  De  Religione 

ances  he  deserved  to  be  compared  to  St.  Ambrose.  He  ©t  Ecclesia", "  De  Deo  Creante", "  De  Gratia  Christi", 

was  ever  a  strong  supporter  of  papal  infallibility  and  a  and  •<  De  virtutibus  infusis  ",  which  went  through  sef* 

devout  advocate  of  Mary's  immaculate  conception,  in  eral  editions.   In  October,  1878,  he  was  called  to  Roma 

the  solemn  definition  of  which  (1854)  he  took  an  active  by  Leo  XIII  to  fill  the  chair  of  theolocr  at  the  Grego- 

part.    In  spite  of  his  well-known  outspokenness,  he  nan  University,  left  vacant  by  FaSber  Franaelin's 

was  made  a  Peer  of  the  French  Empire,  and  in  1851  elevation  to  the  cardinalate,  and  shortly  afterwanb, 

Pius  IX  cave  him  the  paUium.  ,       ,  on  the  retirement  of  Father  Kleutgen,  was  made  p^^ 

Meanwhile  he  contmued  as  Supenor  General  of  the  feet  of  studies.    On  7  Jime,  1886,  Leo  XIII  created 

religious  family  he  had  foimded  and  whose  fortunes  Father  Massella  a  cardinal  deacon.    Ten  years  latei 

wilfbe  found  described  in  the  article  on  the  Oblates  he  became  cardinal  priest.    Not  quite  a  year  aft®- 

of  Mary  Immaculate.    Such  was  the  esteem  in  which  wards  (18  April,  1897),  at  the  express  wish  of  the  pope, 

he  was  held  at  Rome  that  the  pope  had  marked  him  he  became  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Palestrina,  to  the  «▼• 

out  as  one  of  the  cardinals  he  was  to  create  when  death  emment  of  which  see  he  applied  himself  with  untiling 

claimed  him  at  the  ripe  a^e  of  ahnost  seventy-nine,  energy.    He  was  the  first  Jesuit  on  whom  was  be- 

ff.  De  Matenod  (Tou».  1883) ;  Ricard.  Mgr  de  MoMenod,  Mque  he  took  an  active  part  m  the  deliberations  of  a  num- 

d^MoTMilU  (Paris,  n.  d.).  A.  G.  MoRicE.  ber  of  Congregations,  was  for  several  years  president 


lCA2a50LIHX 


95 


MBAYA 


»f  the  Aeademy  of  St.  Thomas,  and,  at  various  times, 
^ect  of  the  CSonsregatioDfl  of  the  Index,  of  Studies, 
ad  of  Rites. 

TOCOTHT  BbOSNAHAN. 


MaiioWnly  Lodovico  (also  known  as  Mazzouni  da 
Pehrara,  Lodovico  FBgjRAREHA,  and  II  Ferrabebb), 
Italian  painter,  b.  in  Ferrara  in  1480;  d.,  according  to 
me  account,  in  1528,  and  to  another,  in  1530;  place  of 
ieath  unknown.  This  artist  is  generally  represented 
IS  having  been  a  pupil  of  Lorenzo  Costa,  and  as  having 
xime  under  the  influence  of  Eroole  Roberti,  but  should 
ye  more  conectly  described  as  a  pupil  of  Panetti. 
Iforelli  called  him  "the  Gk>w-worm^',  "der  QlUh- 
Dvrm"^  from  his  brilliant  gem-like  colour  and  lumi- 
kous  sparUim^  quality,  and  he  proved  that  Mauolini 
ras  a  pupil  of  Panetti  rather  than  Costa,  by  the  form 
>f  the  ear  and  hand  in  his  paintings,  by  his  landscape 
lackgrounds  with  steep  conical  blue  mountains  and 
treaks  of  damling  white,  and  by  his  scheme  of  colour. 
Comparing  Lorenzo  Costa  with  I^erugino,  Morelli  com- 
lares  Panetti  with  Pintorrichio,  alUiough  he  says  as 
m  artist  the  Perugian  far  surpassed  the  somewhat  diy 
Old  narrow-minoed  artist  of  Ferrara,  but  it  is  per- 
ectlv  clear  that  it  was  to  this  dry  and  so-caUed  narrow- 
ninded  man  that  llaasolini  owed  his  excellent  work, 
rhe  architectuzal  backgrounds  of  his  pictures  are  their 
pecially  distinctive  feature,  and  notably  the  creamy- 
oned  marble.  Attention  liiould  further  be  directed 
o  his  use  of  gold  in  the  high  lights  of  his  draperies. 

Of  his  personad  history  we  know  nothing,  save  that 
le  workra  both  in  Ferrara  and  Bolorna,  and  that  he 
narried  in  1521  Giovanna,  the  daii^ter  of  Bartolo- 
neo  Vacchi,  a  Venetian  painter.  His  most  notable 
jncture  represents  Christ  disputing  with  the  doctors, 
8  dated  1524,  and  to  be  seen  at  Berlin.  It  Is  in 
lis  pictures  with  small  figures  that  he  displays  the 
power  of  imparting  pleasure,  as  his  p;ift  was  rather  in 
'he  direction  of  genre  than  of  historical  pjainting,  and 
so  most  observers  there  is  something  curiously  Flem- 
flh  about  his  work.  There  is  a  second  important  pio- 
Uire  of  his  in  Berlin,  a  Virgin  and  Child,  two  at  the 
[jouvie,  one  in  Ferrara,  three  in  the  National  Gallery, 
md  thxee  in  Florence,  other  examples  in  Munich,  and 
in  various  private  collections.  The  chief  work  of  his  in 
Elngland  is  one  bek>nging  to  Lord  Wimbome.  He  is 
&lao  remsented  in  i&  f^alleries  of  Turin,  St.  Peters- 
bur;^,  The  Hague,  and  m  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  the 
Dona,  and  the  Borghese. 


1878,  1886). 


Gborgb  Charles  Williambon. 


Manoliiii  (Mozolini,  also  Prierias),  Sylvester, 
theologian,  b.  at  Priero,  Piedmont,  1460;  d.  at  Rome, 
1523— sometimes  confounded  with  Sylvester  Ferrari- 
ensis  (d.  1526).  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the 
Order  of  St.  Dominic.  Passing  brilliantly  through  a 
course  of  studies  he  taught  theok>^  at  Bologna, 
Pa  via  (bv  invitation  of  the  senate  of  Venice),  and  in 
Rome,  whither  he  was  called  by  Julius  II  in  1511.  In 
1515  he  was  appointed  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace, 
filling  that  office  until  his  death.  His  writings  cover 
a  vast  range,  including  treatises  on  the  planets,  the 
pown*  of  the  demons,  history,  homiletics,  the  works  of 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  primacy  of  the  popes.  He  is 
credited  with  oeing  the  first  theologian  who  by  his 
writings  attacked  publicly  the  subversive  errors  of 
Martin  Luther.  John  Tetsel's  productions  against  the 
8rch-reformer  are  called  by  £chard  scattered  pages 
{/oka  voUtantia) ,  and  Maxsoiinl  stands  forth  as  the  fist 
champion  of  the  Homan  Pontiffs  against  Luther.  The 
heresiarch  replied  to  liassolini's  arguments:  the  latter 
published  rejoinders,  and  there  was  a  reguliur  contro- 
versy between  the  innovator  and  the  defender  of  the 
4n9!qit  F^^ttl-    T^necea9ity9fpromptn^8pi|i«^tt§<j^ 


and  defence  will  account  for  defects  of  style  in  some  oi 
his  writing.  His  principal  works  are :  * '  De  juridica  et 
irrefragabili  veritate  Bomanse  Ecclesia  Itomanique 
Pontificis"  (Rome,  1520);  ''Epitoma  responsionis  ad 
Lutherum  "  (Peru^,  1519) :"  Errata  et  argumenta  M. 
Lutheri"  (Borne,  1520);  ''Summa  Summarumy  qua 
Sylvestrina  dicitur"  (Rome,  1516),  reprinted  forty 
times;  an  alphabetical  encyclopsdia  of  theological 
(questions;  "Rosa  aurea"  (Bologna,  1510)  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  Gospels  of  the  year;  "In  theoricas  plane- 

tarum"  (Venice,  1513). 

Quftrxr-EoHARD,  SS,  Ord.  Prtml.,  II.  65;  Touron,  Bomme9 
mutt,  de  VOrdre  de  S,  Dominique.  Ill,  716;  MxcBAiiuat  I>« 
3ylv.  PrienUa  ,  ,  ,  ffiiael  acripHa  (Munster,  1892). 

D.  J.  Kennbdt. 

Mainichelli,  Pietbo  Francssco  (also  known  as  Ii* 
MoRAszoNE,  Marazzone,  and  Moranzone),  Milanese 
painter,  b.  at  Moranzone  near  Milan,  either  in  1571  or 
1575;  d.  at  Piacenza  in  1626.  In  the  early  part  of  his 
life,  this  painter  resided  in  Rome,  where  he  painted 
various  altar-pieces,  then  he  passed  on  to  Vemce,  and 
made  a  profound  study  of  the  work  of  Titian,  Tinto- 
retto, and  Paolo  Veronese,  so  entirely  altering  his  style 
and  improving  his  scheme  of  colour,  that  the  pictures 
he  painted  when  he  came  to  Milan,  althou^  repre- 
senting subjects  similar  to  those  he  had  earned  out  in 
Rome,  could  hardlv  be  recognized  as  having  come 
from  the  same  hancl.  He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Borommeo,  and  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy  received  the 
honour  of  knighthood  and  the  order  of  St.  Biaurice. 
In  1626  he  was  called  to  Piacenza  to  paint  the  cupola 
of  the  cathedral,  but  was  not  able  to  finish  this  work, 
which  he  commenced  in  a  grand  and  vigorous  style, 
and  died,  it  is  believed,  from  an  accident  in  conneo- 
tion  with  the  scaffolding,  in  consequence  of  which 
Guercino  was  called  in  to  complete  the  work.  The 
chief  painting  by  Mazzuchelli  is  that  in  the  church  of 
San  Uiovanni  at  (Domo,  and  represents  St.  Michael 

and  the  angels. 

Vasaki,  O..  L0  Viie  dei  PiUori  (Florence,  1878.  1885);  Or- 
LANDX,  P.  P^  Abbecedaiio  PiUorieo  (Bologna,  1719),  atao  tbt 
OreUi  ACS.  (Bologna). 

Gbobge  Chablbs  Willlambon. 

MaBsuoIa,  Francesco.    See  Parmigiano,  II. 

Mbaya  TTi^iftTin  (GuATcuBif),  a  predatory  tribe  for- 
merly rangins  on  both  sides  of  the  Paraguay  River,  on 
the  north  ana  northwest  Paraguay  frontier,  and  in  the 
adjacent  portion  of  the  Province  of  Matto  Grosso, 
Brazil.  They  are  one  of  a  group  of  equestrian  warlike 
and  savage  tribes,  constituting  a  distinct  lihguistio 
stock,  the  Guaycuran,  formerly  roving  over  Northern 
Paraguay  and  the  upper  Ghaco  region,  and  of  which 
the  l^t  known  are  the  Abipon,  made  famous  by  the 
missionary  Dobrizhoffer,  the  Guaycur6  proper,  or 
Mbaya,  the  Mocobf  and  the  still  savage  and  powerful 
Toba.  The  Lraigua,  sometimes  included  under  the 
same  name,  are  now  known  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Chi- 
quito  of  Bolivia.  The  name,  Mhaya,  given  to  them  bv 
ttie  more  peaceful  Guaranf,  signifies  "terrible  ", "  bad  , 
or  "savage".  The  name  Guavcuro,  now  most  com- 
monlv  Ui^,  is  said  to  mean  'runner".  They  have 
also  been  called  CabaUeroe  by  the  Spaniards,  on  ac- 
count of  their  fine  horsemanship.  According  to 
Father  Lozano  they  had  three  main  divisions,  viz :  £pi- 
cuar^qui  (Eyiguaye^)  in  the  North,  Napin-yiqui  in 
the  West,  andraqm-yiqui  in  the  South.  lolis,  an- 
other authority,  gives  a  different  list  of  six  divisions. 

The  Guaycurd  were  accustomed  to  prey  upon  the 
more  sedentary  and  industrious  Guaranf  tribes,  mak- 
ing sudden  raids,  with  quick  retreats  into  their  own 
country,  where  tangled  forests  and  treacherous 
swamps  made  pursuit  difficult  and  subjection  almost 
impossible.  In  1542,  Alvar  Nuilez  Caoe^a  de  Vaca, 
governor  of  Buenos  Aires,  with  a  detachment  of 
Spaniards  and  a  contii^nt  of  Guanmf ,  inflicted  upon 
them  a  signal  defeat,  chieflv  by  the  terror  of  his  field 
guqs  Af^d  horses  f  with  botfi  of  which  th^  Guf^y^uid 


MEADl 


96 


t   :i  -i 


were  still  unacquainted.  The  acquisition  of  houses 
Boon  transformed  them  into  a  race  of  expert  and  dar- 
ing equestrians,  and  for  two  centuries  they  continued 
their  raids  upon  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  Para- 
guay River  and  the  neighbouring  missions.  As  early 
as  1610  the  Jesuits  unsuccessfully  attempted  their  con- 
version. About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy 
a  peace  was  arranged,  which,  accordmg  to  Dobrizhof- 
fer,  was  faithfully  kept  by  the  Indians.  The  Jesuit 
Joseph  Sanchez  Labrador  was  then  sent,  at  his  own 
request,  to  work  among  these  Guaycuni,  who  had  been 
considered  the  wildest  and  most  dangerous  tribe  of  the 
region.  Having  made  good  progress  in  their  difficult 
language,  he  established  for  them,  in  1760,  the  mission 
of  virgen  de  Belen  (now  Belen)  east  of  the  jpresent 
Concepci6n,  in  Paraguay.  They  were  impatient  of 
restramt,  and,  although  many  infants  and  dying 
adults  received  baptism,  according  to  Dobrizhoffer, 
"the  rest  did  little  else  thim  wander  over  the  plains". 
The  mission  influence,  however,  effectually  tamed  their 
ferocity.  At  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  in  1767,  the 
Belen  mission  contained  260  Christian  Indians,  eight  of 
the  nine  bands  still  remaining  in  the  forest. 

In  this  same  year  was  established  by  Father  Manuel 
Duran  the  last  of  the  Paraguay  Jesuit  foundations, 
the  mission  of  San  Juan  Nepomuceno,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  river,  among  the  Guana,  or  Ghana,  a  num- 
erous agricultural  and  pedestrian  tribe  of  the  same 
territory,  subject  to  the  Mbaya.  When  the  mission- 
aries were  driven  out,  this  station  contained  600  In- 
dians. The  conversion  of  the  Guana  had  been  under- 
taken more  than  a  centuiy  before  by  Father  Pedro 
Romero,  who  lost  his  life  m  1645  at  the  hands  of  a 
neighbouring  wild  tribe.  Among  the  Guana,  infanti- 
cide, polygamy,  and  intoxication  were  imknown,  and 
men  and  women  worked  together  in  the  fields.  About 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Franciscans  took 
up  the  work  begim  by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  next  fifty  years  gathered  a  number  of  the  Quajr- 
curd  and  Guana  into  missions,  which  continued  until 
the  tribes  themselves  declined  or  were  assimilated. 
Lieutenant  Page,  who  commanded  an  expedition  sent 
by  the  United  States  Government  to  explore  the  Para- 
guay River,  gives  an  interesting  and  extended  account 
of  his  visit  to  one  of  these  missions,  Nossa  Senhora  de 
Bon  Conselho,  near  Albuquerque,  Brazil,  in  1853 
(Page,  "  Report  to  the  Secretary;  of  the  Navy  ",  Wash- 
ington, 1855) .  Here  the  Christian  Guanas  cultivated 
vegetables  for  the  market  afforded  by  neighbouring 
white  settlements.  Under  the  care,  both  temporal 
and  spiritual,  of  a  Franciscan  father,  these  abori^es, 
who,  only  a  few  years  earlier,  had  been  wandering 
savages,  were  now  a  remarkably  neat,  orderly,  and 
thrifty  community  of  husbandmen.  Fronting  upon  a 
public  square,  there  stood  the  village  church,  the 
schoolhouse,  and  a  number  of  well-constructed 
thatched  dwellings,  each  dwelling  having  a  frontage 
of  20  feet,  the  interiors  partition^  with  curtains  and 
fitted  with  raised  platforms  to  serve  either  as  tables  or 
OS  beds.  Among  the  vegetables  cultivated  was  a 
native  rice,  which  they  harvested  in  canoes.  Cotton, 
too,  was  grown,  spim,  dyed,  and  woven  by  the  women 
of  the  settlement.  The  men  wore  trousers  and 
ponchos;  the  women,  a  chemise  girdled  at  the  waist; 
the  boys  were  exeroised  in  military  tactics,  and  the 
children  in  general  were  not  only  taught  "the  rudi- 
ments of  a  common  education,  but  made  some  progress 
in  music  and  dancing".  A  few  of  the  Mbaya  proper 
still  exist  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Paraguay  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Concepci6n.  Other 
bands  known  as  Guaycurd  roam  over  the  adjacent  dis- 
tricts of  Matto  Grosso,  Brazil,  and  may  number  per- 
haps 1500  souls  as  against  an  estimated  15,000  or 
18,000  about  a  century  ago.  The  Guana,  on  the 
Faquari  and  Miranda  Rivers  in  the  same  region,  are 
now  labourers  among  the  whites,  although  still 
"laimed  as  dependents  by  the  Guaycuni. 


In  their  primitive  condition  the  men  of  the  Gnrnt- 
curd  went  entirelv  n^ed,  while  the  women  wore  odxj 
a  short  skirt.  The  men  trimmed  their  luur  in  a  ei^ 
cular  tuft.  Girb  had  the  head  closely  shaven.  The 
men  painted  their  bodies,  and  wore  rings  in  the  lower 
lip.  Boys  were  painted  black  until  about  fourteeo 
years  old,  then  red  for  two  years,  when  they  were 
subjected  to  a  painful  ordeal,  before  taking  tfadr 
station  as  warriors.  War  was  their  chief  business, 
their  weapons  being  the  bow,  club,  and  bone  knife. 
The  children  bom  of  captives  were  sold  as  slavei. 
Their  chief  tribal  ceremony  was  in  honour  of  the 
Pleiades,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  sham  battle  be- 
tween the  men  and  women,  ending  with  a  general  in- 
toxication. They  buried  their  dead  in  t&  ground, 
and  voluntaiy  human  victims  were  sacrificed  when  a 
chief  died.  Polygamy  was  unknown,  but  separatioo 
was  frequent,  and  infanticide  common.  They  sub> 
sisted  by  fishing  and  hunting.  Their  villages  con- 
sisted each  of  a  simple  communal  structure  in  three 
large  rooms,  the  middle  of  which  was  reserved  for  the 
chief  and  head  men,  and  for  the  storage  of  weapons. 
The  chief  had  great  authority,  and  with  his  head  men, 
seems  to  have  belonged  to  a  different  clan,  or  gent^ 
from  the  common  warriors.  Captives  and  their  de- 
scendants constituted  a  permanent  slave  daas.  As  a 
people,  they  were  tall  and  strongly  built.  Those  still 
remaining  show  the  admixture  of  white  captive  blood 
and  are  gradually  assimilating  to  the  settled  popula- 
tion. 

Brinton,  Ameriean  Race  (New  Toric«  1891);  Cbarxxtoix 
Hui.  ofParaouayt  I  (London,  1796);  X>ov«t3Movrmau  Account  of 
the  AbijHmes  (London,  1822);  Hbrtas,  Catnlogo  dHaa  Ungtuu, 
I  (Madrid.  1800);  Loiako,  Detcripcion  Chorooraphiea  del  Grm 


James  Mookxt. 

Meade,  John.    See  Alkceida,  John. 

Meagher,  Thomas  Francis,  soldier,  politidan,  b. 
at  Waterfoid,  Ireland,  3  August,  1823;  accidental] v 
drowned  in  the  Missouri  River,  U.  8.  A^  1  July,  186f . 
Educated  in  the 
Jesuit  colleges  ot 
Clongowes  and 
Stonyhurst,  he 
finished  his  college 
career  in  1843  with 
a  reputation  for 
great  oratorical 
ability  which  he  de- 
votedat  once,under 
O'Connell,  to  the 
cause  of  RepeaL 
His  impetuous  na- 
ture chafed  under 
the  restraint  of  con- 
stitutional^ agita- 
tion, and  his  impas- 
sioned  eloouence 
stimulated  the 
more  radical  revo- 
lutionary efforts  of 
the  young  Irelanders,  who,  in  1848,  broke  away  from 
O'Connell's  leadership.  In  the  roring  c^  that  year 
he  went  with  William  Smith  O'Brien  to  France 
as  member  of  a  deputation  to  Lamartine  to  con- 
gratulate the  people  of  France  on  the  establishment 
of  a  republic.  A  trial  for  ''exciting  the  people  to 
rise  in  rebellion",  the  following  May  resulted  in  a 
disagreement  of  tne  jury,  but  in  the  abortive  rebel- 
lion in  July  he  was  among  those  arrested,  tried  for 
high  treason,  and  sentenced  on  23  October  to  be 
hanged.  This  was  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for 
life  and  on  29  July,  1849,  with  O'Brien  and  Terencp 
Bellew  MacManus,  ne  was  transported  to  Tasnoai.i  i. 
Escaping  from  this  penal  colony  m  1852,  he  landed  ii^ 


TaoMAB  FiUNcn  Mbaoi 


i*iew  Yoric,  where  hia  oountrymen  g&veblm  a  hearty  Lombards,  Paris,  waa  consecrated  bishop  bv  the  papal 
welcome.  Hisnopularityaaalocturernasimmediate;  nuncio  at  Paris  in  1779.  The  venael  in  wuich  he  re- 
he  also  studied  law  and,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1855,  turned  to  Ireland  was  attacked  and  plundered  bv  the 
Started  a  paper  called  the  "Irish  News"  (12  April,  famousPaulJonea,  the  American  privateer,  wbo.aow- 
1866),  in  which  he  published  his  "Perecnal  Reoolle(»-  ever,  to  his  credit  be  it  said,  afterwards  resttntid  the 
tiooB  .  Two  years  later  he  undertook  an  exploring  epiaoopal  property,  for  eight  and  forty  years,  with 
expedition   in   Central   America;   his  narrative  was  a  truly  Apoetolic  spirit,  this  great  bishop  traversed  the 

a  ted  in  "  Harper's  Uagaiine",    When  the  Civil  War  whole  diocese  yearly,  visiting  every  pariah,  preaching, 

£  out  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Union,  raised  catechizing,  ^ving  seasonable  counsel  to  the  clergy 

a  company  of  Zouaves,  went  to  the  front  with  the  andsuitableinstruction  to  the  people, sothatinbisde- 

Sixtv-Ninth  New  York  Volunteers,  and  participated  dining  years  he  was  fittingly  called,  by  the  Primate 

in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.     He  then  organiied  of  Armagh,  "the  ornament  and  father  of  the  Irish 

the  famous  Irish  Brigade,  of  which  he  was  oonunis-  Church".    The  catechism  compiled  by  Dr.  Flunket 

sioDed  bri^dier-general,  and  with  it  participated  in  cannot  eaailv  be  improved,  and  is  still  used  in  the 

the  operations  of  the  Aimy  of  the  Potomac,  in  which  schools  of  tne  diocese.     He  died  in  January,  1827, 

H  apeciaily  distinguished  itself  in  the  battles  of  Fair  in  his  eighty-ninth  year.     His  Bucceesor,  Dr.  Logan, 

Oat  (1  June,  1862)^he  seven  days'  fight  before  Rich-  Uved  only  a  few  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Cant* 

mond,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg   (13  Dec     1862),  well,  the  steadfast  fnend  of  Daniel  O'Connell.    With 

where  it  was  almost  annihilated,  and  Chancellorsville  great  energy  Dr.  Cantwell   gathered   the  scattered 

(1853).     He  then  resigned  his  command  because,  he  stones  of  the  sanctuary,  and  le-eiected  the  lemplea 

said,  "  it  was  perpetrating  a  public  deception  to  keep  levelled  in  the  penal  days.     Dr.  Nulty  became  bishop 

up  a  brigade  so  reduced  in  numbers,  and  which  he  in  lK64^anddurinKhisepiscapateof  thirty-four  years 

had  been  refused  permission  to  withdraw  from  service  spent  hima^  in  tte  service  of  Qod  and  his  peopw.   A 

—  J ;.ii     ^  command  of  a  military  district  ir 


e  given  him,  which  he  resigned 
after  a  short  time.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
made  (July,  1SS5)  Territorial  Secretar};  of  Montana. 
During  a  trip  made  in  the  course  of  his  administra- 
tion (^  this  office  he  fell  from  a  steamer  into  the 
Uiasouri  River  at  night  and  was  drowned.  His  body 
was  never  found. 

Catahaqb,  Memorial  o/Om.  Thtmai  FrancU  Meagher  (Woi^ 
iHter,  Hub.,  1862):  CoHTNaRAH,  Tht  Iriik  Brioadi  and  iU 
CamaiMpti  <New  York.  18e7);  SAT:taii,  'fW  and  >M  (New  York, 
18M):  Ddftt,  Young  /™innd  (London,  1880);  Four  Yiari  of 
IriwJt  Bitlory  {Loadon.  1883);  McCaktht,  HiMorv  if  Our  Own 
Tima,  U  (Ns»  Yock,  ISST);  IritK  Anttrican  (Nbw  York).  Rlea. 

Thouab  F,  Me  eh  an. 
Hesth,  Diocese  of  (Midensib),  in  Ireland,  suFFra- 
can  of  Armagh.     In  extent  it  is  the  largest  diocese 
ID  Ireland,  and  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  coun- 

£^r<LKS"bS&S''ct="  'Six  -•  "*"■■  °"—  "™"" 

ent  Diocese  of  Heath  anciently  comprised  eight  epis-  profound  theologian  and  ardent  student,  he  put  be- 

copal  sees,  the  chief  of  which  was  Clonard,  founded  tore  his  priests  a  high  intellectual  standard;  at  the 

in   the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  by  St.  Finian,  same  time  he  did  much  to  overthrow  landlordism 

"Tutorof  theSaintsof  Erin",    At  the  national  Sjrnod  andto  root  the  people  firmly  in  their  native  soil. 

of  Kella,  in  1172,  over  which  Cardinal  Paparo  presided  The  population  of  the  Diocese  of  Meath  at  the  last 

as  le^te  of  EuRene  III,  it  was  decided  that  these  sees  census  (1901)  was  143,164,  of  whom  132,892  were 

be  joined  together.     The  united  see  was  aadgned  as  Catholics.     Since  1871  the  population  of  the  diocese 

first  auiffiagan  to  Armagh,  and  ranks  inunediat«Iv  has  decreased  27  per  cent.;  d\iring  the  same  period 

after  the  metropolitan  sees  in  Ireland.     In  his  "Hi-  the  non-Catholic  population  decreased  36  per  cent, 

bemia  Dominicana"  De  Burgo  says  that  Meath  is  the  There  are  144  churches  and  S6  parishes,  165  secular 

foremost  suSta^n  of  Armagh,  and  has  precedence  priests  and  12  regulars,  3  mana«tio  bouses  of  men 

eveothoughitsbishopbetbeyoungestofthelrishprel-  with  17  members,  and  13  convents  of  nuns  with 

ates  in  order  of  consecration.    Meath  being  the  eoun-  134  members.     St.  Finian's  College,  an   impoainK 

by  at  the  Fak,  many' Englishmen  were  appointed  structure  erected  in  Hullingar  and  opened  in  1908,  re- 

bishops  (rf  Heath,  among  them  the  notorious  Staples  places  the  old  '  uilding  in  Navan,  which  had  held,  for 

who  apostatised  m  the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  and  was  more  than  one  hundred  years,  an  honoured  plaos 

deposed  in  1554.     Dr.  Walsh,  a  Cistercian  monk,  sue-  among  the  j  ,hools  of  Ireland.      The   new   college, 

ceeded,  and  more  than  repaired  the  scandal  caused  by  which  cost  over  .^40,000,  has  acooromodation  for  160 

his  recreant  predecessor.    This  noble  ccHifesaor  of  the  students  and  b  intended  both  as  a  seminary  to  pre- 

Faith  bravely  withstood  all  the  threats  and  blandish-  pare  priects  for  '.l_e  diocese,  and  to  impart  a  sound 

ments  of  Queen  Elisabeth  and  her  agents.    He  spent  Catholic  liberal  education  to  those  intended  for  worldly 

thirteen  years  in  a  dungeon  in  Dublin  Castle,  and  pursuits.    There  is  a  Jeauit  novitiat«  and  college  at 

finally  died  an  exile  at  AlcaU  in  &psin.     His  name  is  Tullamoie^  and  a  house  of  Carmelite  Fathers  at  Uoate. 

reckoned  in  more  than  one  Irish  Martyroloey.     Like  The  Franciscans  of  the  Irid  province  have  a  monastery 

htoiour  is  paid  to  h'"!  by  his  own  order,  ana  his  Cis-  and  preparatory  school  at  Multyfamham,  near  the 

tercian  biographer  contends  that  the  martyr's  crown  cathedral  town  of  Mullingar.     The  Abbey  of  Hulty- 

is  hia  as  truly  as  if  he  had  died  in  tormenta.     The  famham   has  been   in   Franciscan  hands  since  pre- 

Buccession  <A  bishops  in  the  See  of  Meath  has  been  Reformation  times,  and  has  witnessed  the  good  and 

continued  without  interruption  to  the  present  day,  evil  fortunes  of  the  friars  in  Ireland.    The  Franciscan 

except  during  a  few  brief  mterregnums  m  the  penal  Brothers  have  a  school  at  Clara,  and  the  Christian. 

days.      It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that,  omitting  Dr.  Brothers  have  a  school  at  Mullingar  (500  pupils)  and 

Loan's  short  reign  of  a  few  years,  but  three  bishops  atClara  (200  pupils).    At  RochfortbridgB,9t.  Joseph's 

ruled  the  Diocese  of  Meath  from  1779  to  1800,  Drs.  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  is  conducted  by  the 

Flunket, Cantwell,  and  Nulty.     Dr.  Plunket,who  had  Sisters  of  Hercy.    The  Loreto  Nuns  have  educational 

been  pi^essM- and  superior  m  the  IdahCoUegaoC  the  houae&  in.  Navao  vv)  Uuljin^.  which  hay^  «n 


MBAUZ 


98 


fayourable  recognition.  The  Presentation  Sisters  have 
foundations  in  Mullingar  and  Rahan.  where  the^  have 
charge  of  the  primary  schools,  while  the  Sisters  ofMercy 
have  oiphanages  at  Navan  and  KeUs,  take  care  of  the 
hospitals  in  Tullamorey  Trim,  Mullingar,  Drogheda. 
and  Navan,  and  at  the  same  time  conduct  national 
schools  in  the  principal  towns  of  the  diocese. 

The  Diocese  of  Meath,  often  called  the  "royal  dio- 
cese", is  rich  in  historic  associations,  pagan  and  Chris- 
tian. In  Meath  was  Tara  "  of  the  kmgs",  the  palace 
of  the  Ard-righ.  whither  came  the  chieftains  and 
princes,  the  bards  and  brehons  of  Erin.    The  princi- 

Sal  cemetery  of  the  pagan  kings  of  Ireland  was  at 
irugh-na-B6inne.  Competent  authorities  declare 
that  the  surrounding  tumuli  are  among  the  oldest 
in  Europe.  Close  at  hand  is  Rosnaree,  where 
Cormac  Mac  Art,  the  first  Christian  King  of  Irekmd, 
who  refused  to  be  buried  in  pagan  Brugh,  awaits  the 
last  summons.  Uisneach  in  Westmeaui,  Tlachtgha, 
or  the  Hill  of  Ward,  and  Teltown  were  celebrated  for 
their  royal  palaces,  their  solemn  conventions,  their 
pagan  games,  and  their  druidic  ceremonies,  and  in 
ChSristian  times  were  sanctified  by  the  labours  of  St. 
Patrick  and  St.  Brigid.  Slane  reminds  us  of  St. 
Patrick's  first  Holy  Saturday  in  Ireland,  when  he  lit 
the  paschal  fire,  symbolizing  the  lamp  of  Faith  which 
has  never  since  been  extingiushed.  Trim^ounded  bv 
St.  Loman,  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  St.  Patrick,  still 
retains  in  its  many  ruins  striking  evidences  c^  its 
departed  glories.  Kells,  with  its  round  tower,  its 
splendid  sculptured  crosses,  and  the  house  of  Colum- 
cille,  reminds  us  of  that  "  Dove  of  the  Irish  Church", 
whose  memory  is  also  cherished  in  his  beloved  Durrow. 
Finally,  Meath  is  the  birthplace  of  the  Venerable 
Oliver  Plunket.  the  marWred  Primate  of  Armagh,  the 

last  victim  publicly  sacrificed  in  England  for  the  Faith. 
CooAN,  DwcMe  o/Mtaih  (Dublin,  1802);   Hbalt,  Aneieni 
SehooU  of  Irdand  (Dublin,  1800);    Iriah  BeeUnaatieal  Record 
(June,  1900);  Iriah  CathoUe  ZKrectorv  (Dublin,  1910). 

Patbick  E.  Dirrrr. 

Meauz,  Diocese  of  (Meldenbis),  comprises  the  en- 
tire department  of  Seine  and  Mame,  suffragan  of  Sens 
until  1622,  and  subsequently  of  Paris.  Tiie  Concor- 
dat of  1801  had  given  to  the  JDiocese  of  Meaux  the  de- 
partment of  Mame,  separated  from  it  in  1821  and  1822 
by  the  establishment  of  the  archiepiscopal  See  of 
Keims  and  the  episcopal  See  of  Ch&lons.  The  pres- 
ent Diocese  of  Meaux  is  made  up  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  former  Diocese  of  Meaux,  a  Large  part  of  the  rormer 
Diocese  of  Sens,  a  part  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Paris, 
and  a  few  parishes  of  the  former  Dioceses  of  Troyes, 
Soissons  and  SenUs.  Hildegaire ,  who  lived  in  the  mnth 
century,  says  in  his  "Life  of  St.  Faro"  ^Burgundo- 
faro),  tnat  this  bishop  was  the  twentieui  since  St. 
Denis,  According  to  the  tradition  accepted  by  Hilde- 
gaire, St.  Denis  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Meaux,  and 
.  was  succeeded  by  his  disciple  St.  Saintin,  who  in  turn 
was  succeeded  by  St.  Antoninus;  and  another  saint, 
named  Rigomer,  occupied  the  See  of  Meaux  at  the  close 
of  the  fifth  century.  In  876  or  877,  Hincmar  showed 
Charles  the  Bald  a  document  which  he  claimed  had 
been  transcribed  from  a  very  old  copy  and  according 
to  which  St.  Antoninus  ana  St.  Samtin,  disciples  of 
St.  Denis,  had  brought  to  Pope  Anacletus  the  account 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Denis,  and  on  their  return  to 
Gaul  had  successively  occupied  the  See  of  Meaux. 
(For  these  traditions  see  Paris.) 

According  to  Mgr.  Duchesne,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Meaux  historically  known  is  Medovechus,  present  at 
two  councils  in  549  and  552.  Of  the  bishops  of  Meaux 
the  following  may  be  mentioned  (followinf^Mgr.  Allou's 
chronology) :  St.  Faro  (626-72),  whose  sister  St.  Fara 
founded  the  monastery  of  Faremoutiers,  and  who  him- 
self built  at  Meaux  the  monastery  of  St-Croix;  St.  Hil- 
devert  (672-680);  St.  Pathus,  who  died  about  684  be- 
fore being  consecrate  J;  St.  Ebriffisilus  (end  of  the 
wvpnth  Gientury);  St-  (Xb&i>  (first  half  of  the  eleventh 


centuiy);  Durand  de  St-PourQain  (1326-1334),  com- 
mentator on  the  **  Book  of  Sentences",  known  as  the 
"resolutive  doctor";  Philippe  de  Vitnr  (1351-1361). 
friend  of  Petrarch  and  author  of  the  "  Metamorphoses 
d'Ovide  Moralis6es";  Pierre  Fresnel  (139&-1409),  sev- 
eral times  ambassador  of  Charles  Vl;  Pierre  de  Ver- 
sailles (143^1446),  chaiged  with  important  miasioos 
bv  Eugene  IV,  and  who,  when  commissioned  by 
Charles  VII  in  1429  to  examine  Joan  of  Arc,  had  de- 
clared himself  convinced  of  the  Divine  mission  of  the 
liaid  of  Orleans;  Guillaume  Briconnet  (1516-1534), 
ambassador  of  Francis  I  to  Leo  X,  and  during  whose 
episcopate  the  Reformation  was  introduced  by  Farel 
and  G^nuti  Roussel,  whom  he  had  personally  called  to 
his  diocese  for  the  revival  of  studies;  Cardinal  Antoine 
du  Prat  (1534-1535),  who  had  an  active  share  in  the 
drawing  up  of  the  concordat  between  Francis  I  and 
Leo  X;  the  controversial  writer  and  historian  Jean  du 
Tillet  (1564-1570);  Louis  de  Br6s^.  twice  bishop,  first 
from  1554  to  1564,  then  from  1570  to  1589,  during 
whose  episcopate  the  diocese  was  greatly  disturbed  by 
religious  wars;  Dominique  Siguier  (1637-1659),  the 
first  French  bishop  to  establish  ''ecclesiastical  con- 
ferences" in  his  diocese;  the  great  Bossuet  (1681- 
1704);  Cardinal  de  Bis^  (1705-1737),  celebrated  for 
his  conflict  with  the  Jansenists;  De  Barral  (1802- 
1805),  later  Grand  Almoner  of  Empress  Josephine  and 
Archbishop  of  Tours,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in 
1810  and  1811  in  the  negotiations  between  Napoleon 
and  Pius  VI  I.  In  1 562  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Meaux 
had  become  Protestants,  and  Joachim  de  Montluc, 
sent  by  the  king,  proceeded  with  rigour  against  them. 
They  were  still  sumcientl^r  powerfuTin  1567  to  attempt 
to  carry  off,  in  the  vicinitv  of  Meaux,  Catherine  oe* 
Medici  and